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by "McKinsey & Company" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 02:48 - 12 Nov 2024 -
Storing 200 Billion Entities: Notion’s Data Lake Project
Storing 200 Billion Entities: Notion’s Data Lake Project
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The famous productivity app Notion has witnessed a staggering 10X data growth since 2021.
At the start of 2021, they had around 20 billion block rows in Postgres. In 2024, this figure has grown to more than 200 billion blocks. The data volume, even when compressed, is hundreds of terabytes.
Moreover, all of this block data has been doubling every 6 to 12 months, driven by user activity and content creation.
Notion’s engineering team had to manage this rapid growth while meeting the ever-increasing data demands of the core product and the analytics use cases. This required them to build and scale Notion’s data lake.
In this post, we’ll take a look at the challenges Notion faced while doing so and how they overcame those challenges.
What is a Block?
Before going further, it’s important to understand the concept of “Block” in Notion.
Everything you see in the Notion editor (texts, images, headings, lists, pages, etc) is modeled as a “block” entity in the backend. The block types may have different front-end representations and behaviors. However, they are all stored in a Postgres database with a consistent structure, schema, and associated metadata.
See the diagram below for reference:
As Notion started to see data growth, its engineering team opted for sharding to scale the monolithic Postgres instance.
In 2021, the Postgres database was sharded to 32 physical instances with each instance comprising 15 logical shards.
Next, in 2023, they increased to 96 physical instances with 5 logical shards per instance.
In essence, they maintained a total of 480 logical shards while increasing the number of physical instances.
See the diagram below for reference:
In 2021, Postgres at Notion catered to online user traffic as well as the various offline data analytics and machine learning requirements. However, as the demands grew for both data needs, the Notion engineering team decided to build a dedicated data infrastructure to handle offline data without interfering with online traffic.
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The Initial Data Warehouse Architecture
Notion built the first dedicated data infrastructure in 2021. It was a simple ELT (Extract, Load, and Transform) pipeline.
See the diagram below:
The pipeline worked as follows:
A third-party tool Fivetran ingested data from the Postgres WAL (Write Ahead Log) for all the 480 shards. In other words, there were 480 hourly-run connectors.
Fivetran sent the ingested data to 480 raw Snowflake tables.
Within Snowflake, these tables were merged into a single large table for analytics, reporting, and machine learning requirements.
There were multiple scaling challenges with this approach.
1 - Operational Difficulty
Monitoring and managing 480 Fivetran connectors (one for every shard) was a difficult job.
Activities such as re-syncing these connectors during Postgres re-sharding, upgrade, and maintenance periods created a significant on-call burden for the support team.
2 - Speed and Cost
Ingesting data to Snowflake became slower and costlier, particularly due to Notion’s update-heavy workload.
Since Notion’s primary use is note-taking and managing those notes, users update existing blocks much more often than they add new ones. This results in an update-heavy workload.
However, most data warehouses (including Snowflake) are optimized for insert-heavy workloads.
3 - Support for Requirements
Even more than the first two, the lack of support for certain requirements eventually became a more important challenge.
As Notion grew, the data transformation logic became more complex and heavy, making it difficult to handle using the standard SQL interface offered by off-the-shelf data warehouses.
For example, an important use case was to construct denormalized views of Notion’s block data for key features related to AI and Search. However, constructing permission data for a block was difficult since it wasn’t statically stored in Postgres but constructed on the fly via tree traversal computation.
See the example below:
In this example, the various blocks (block_1, block_2, and block_3) inherit permissions from their immediate parents (page_3 and page_2) and ancestors (page_1 and the workspace itself).
Permission data for such blocks can be built only by traversing the tree up to the root (i.e. the workspace). With billions of blocks, Notion found this computation very costly in Snowflake.
Notion’s New Data Lake
Due to the challenges with scaling and operating the initial data warehouse, Notion decided to build a new in-house data lake with the below objectives:
The data repository should be capable of storing both raw and processed data at scale.
Data ingestion and computation for Notion’s update-heavy block data should be fast, scalable, and cost-efficient.
Support for denormalized data that can unlock critical features like AI and Search.
The diagram below shows the high-level design of the new data lake.
The process works as follows:
Incrementally updated data is ingested from Postgres to Kafka using Debezium CDC connectors.
Apache Hudi, an open-source data processing and storage framework, writes these updates from Kafka to S3. This is the raw data.
Next, the raw data is transformed, denormalized (tree traversal and permission data construction), and enriched.
The processed data is stored in S3 again or in downstream systems to serve analytics and reporting needs.
While the final look of the design seems quite straightforward, Notion arrived at it after making several important design decisions.
Let’s look at a few of them in more detail.
1 - Choosing a Data Repository and Lake
Notion used S3 as a data repository and lake to store both the raw and processed data. Other product-facing data stores such as ElasticSearch, Vector Database, and Key-Value store were downstream of this.
Choosing S3 was a logical choice since Notion’s Postgres database is based on AWS RDS and its export-to-S3 feature made it easy to bootstrap tables in S3. Also, S3 is proven to store large amounts of data and support data processing engines like Spark at low cost.
2 - Choosing the Processing Engine
Notion engineering team chose Spark as the main data processing engine. As an open-source framework, it was easy to set up and evaluate.
There were some key benefits to using Spark:
A wide range of built-in functions and UDFs beyond SQL enable complex data processing logic like tree traversal and block data denormalization.
Existence of a user-friendly PySpark framework for light use cases and advanced Scala Spark for high-performance, and heavy data processing.
Ability to process large-scale data in a distributed manner.
3 - Incremental Ingestion or Snapshot Dump
Based on performance and cost comparisons, Notion went with a hybrid design with more emphasis on incremental ingestion.
During normal operations, they ingest and continuously apply changed Postgres data to S3.
In rare cases, they take a full Postgres snapshot once to bootstrap tables in S3.
This was done because the incremental approach ensures fresher data at a lower cost and minimal delay. For example, the incremental approach takes a few minutes to a couple of hours as compared to the snapshot dump taking more than 10 hours and costs twice as much.
4 - Streamline Incremental Ingestion
The Notion engineering team chose the Kafka Debezium CDC (Change Data Capture) connector to publish incrementally changed Postgres data to Kafka. This was done for the scalability, ease of setup, and close integration with the existing infrastructure.
For ingesting incremental data from Kafka to S3, they chose Apache Hudi. Other options on the table were Apache Iceberg and DataBricks Delta Lake. However, Hudi gave a better performance with Notion’s update-heavy workload along with native integration with Debezium CDC messages.
5 - Ingest Raw Data Before Processing
Another interesting decision was to ingest raw Postgres data to S3 without on-the-fly processing.
This was done to create a single source of truth and simplify debugging across the data pipeline. Once the data is in S3, they perform the transformation, denormalization, and enrichment. The intermediate data is once again stored in S3 and only highly clean, structured, and business-critical data is ingested to downstream analytics systems.
Solving Scaling Challenges of the New Data Lake
Since the data volume at Notion was ever-growing, the engineering team took many steps to tackle the scalability challenges.
Here are a few important ones to understand.
1 - CDC Connector and Kafka
They set up one Debezium CDC connector per Postgres host and deployed them in an AWS EKS cluster.
For reference, the diagram below shows how CDC with Debezium and Kafka works on a high level.
Also, there is one Kafka topic per Postgres table, and all connectors consuming from 480 shards write to the same topic for that table. This approach simplified downstream Hudi ingestion to S3 by reducing the complexity of maintaining 480 separate topics for each table.
2 - Hudi Setup
The Notion engineering team used Apache Hudi Deltastreamer (Spark-based) to consume Kafka messages and replicate Postgres tables in S3. They utilized COPY_ON_WRITE Hudi table type with UPSERT operation to support the update-heavy workload.
Some key optimizations were as follows:
Partitioned data using the Postgres shard scheme (i.e. 480 shards).
Sorted data based on the last updated time (event_lsn)
Set index type to bloom filter.
3 - Spark Data Processing Setup
They used PySpark for the majority of data processing jobs because of its low learning curve and accessibility to team members. For tasks like tree traversal and denormalization, they utilized Scala Spark.
A key optimization was to manage data by handling large and small shards differently. Small shards were loaded entirely into memory whereas large shards were managed through disk reshuffling. Also, to optimize runtime and efficiency, they implemented multi-threading and parallel processing for 480 shards.
4 - Bootstrap Setup
The bootstrap setup works as follows:
To bootstrap new tables, they first set up a Debezium Connector to ingest Postgres changes to Kafka.
They start the AWS RDS export-to-S3 job from a specific timestamp to save the latest snapshot of Postgres tables to S3.
Next, they create a Spark job to read the data from S3 and write them to the Hudi table format.
To maintain data completeness and integrity, all changes made during the snapshotting process are captured by setting up Deltastreamer to read Kafka messages from the specific timestamp.
Conclusion
Notion’s data lake infrastructure project development started in the spring of 2022 and was completed by the fall. It has been a huge success for them in terms of cost and reliability.
Some key benefits have been as follows:
Over $1 million in cost savings in 2022. Proportionally higher savings in 2023 and 2024.
Ingestion time reduced from 1+ day to minutes/hours
Re-sync is possible within 24 hours without overloading databases.
Accommodate Notion’s 6-12 month data doubling rate.
Enabled successful rollout of Notion AI features in the year 2023-2024.
References:
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How can aviation leaders boost production of sustainable fuels?
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Welcome to the latest edition of Only McKinsey Perspectives. We hope you find our insights useful. Let us know what you think at Alex_Panas@McKinsey.com and Axel_Karlsson@McKinsey.com.
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Sustainable fuels’ potential. As organizations take steps to reduce their effects on the climate, leaders are increasingly considering the potential of sustainable fuels—rather than the fossil fuels that contribute to the rapid warming of our planet. For instance, as McKinsey partners Axel Esqué and Daniel Riefer and coauthor Geert Mulder highlight, the SAFs already certified for use in today’s jet engines produce about 80% fewer greenhouse gas emissions than traditional jet fuel.
•
Rising demand. Even though some sustainable-fuel industries are still emerging, McKinsey research projects significant growth for most sustainable fuels—other than clean hydrogen—by 2030. In fact, by 2050, McKinsey expects the demand for sustainable fuels to quadruple, and that sustainable fuels could account for as much as 37% of all energy used in the transportation sector. Read our McKinsey Explainer to learn how aviation stakeholders could help accelerate sustainable-fuel production, and visit our McKinsey at COP29 page to explore our events at the UN’s 2024 climate change conference.
—Edited by Belinda Yu, editor, Atlanta
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Sixty years of innovation: Key moments in business technology
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by "McKinsey & Company" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 02:20 - 11 Nov 2024 -
Leadership lessons from veterans
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Why are veterans so valuable to the workforce? Gain deeper insights into the unique skillsets they bring to the table. Revisit a conversation between McKinsey’s Aaron De Smet and Adria Horn, an army veteran and Tilson executive, on the unexpected similarities between reintegrating into civilian life after deployment and navigating the workplace after crisis. And watch senior partner Scott Blackburn’s interview with Nate Boaz, Marine Corps veteran and Microsoft executive, whose leadership and passion for helping others continued in postmilitary life. Then explore more insights to learn about the many contributions veterans make in leadership positions and across all levels of the workforce.
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by "McKinsey & Company" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 10:53 - 11 Nov 2024 -
A leader’s guide to steering effective transformations
Leading Off
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Welcome to the latest edition of Leading Off. We hope you find our insights useful. Let us know what you think at Alex_Panas@McKinsey.com and Axel_Karlsson@McKinsey.com.
—Alex and Axel
Given the breakneck pace of change in the business world, many leaders are wrestling with how to transform their organizations and secure their longer-term future. Business transformations can involve many factors, such as developing new capabilities or products, adopting new technologies, and inspiring employees to embrace changes in the ways their organizations operate. It’s a daunting challenge: McKinsey research shows that less than one-third of transformations meet their goals of both improving organizational performance and sustaining those improvements over time. This week, we explore a few approaches and insights that can help make transformations successful.
Real transformative change goes beyond restructurings or short-term solutions to boost efficiency. It’s about reprogramming an organization’s DNA, according to McKinsey’s Kevin Carmody, Louisa Greco, and Rob Montgomery. They say that the road map to a successful transformation should begin with leaders identifying a strategic “true north” and articulating a bold aspiration for what their company wants to become. This aspiration should then determine a sequence of steps across four work streams: cost optimization, growth, organizational effectiveness, and digital enablement. By embedding their new strategy into day-to-day operations, leaders can establish their transformations as the new business as usual rather than a side project. “When done right, a transformation becomes a source of continual renewal, evolving and even revolutionizing a business over a series of horizons,” the authors say.
That’s how much more likely midsize companies are to execute successful transformations if they involve a broad cross section of employees in the effort. Midcap companies, or those with $200 million to $2 billion in revenue, are only half as productive as large companies. Senior partner Mauricio Janauskas and his coauthors say that “transformation is an imperative” for these companies to catch up with higher-performing competitors. Midsize businesses face resourcing challenges in a range of areas: limited leadership benches, access to capital, and change-management experience, for example. But midcaps can also have advantages over bigger companies in transformations, including greater agility, faster decision making, and loyal, long-term employees who are willing to take on new roles. The authors note that investing in talent early and cultivating an owner mindset among employees are two critical ways that midcaps can reap the full benefits of transformations.
That’s McKinsey senior partner Chris Hagedorn on the use of M&A as a launchpad for transformation in an episode of McKinsey’s Inside the Strategy Room podcast. Hagedorn and partner Alex Liu say that some deals can provide transformation opportunities when executives are under pressure to create more value. One factor for leaders to consider is how a transaction might help them transform their customer strategies. “If you’re trying to access a whole new base of customers, perhaps through a new channel, or you’re thinking about creating an entirely new set of offerings, that would be another marker of transformation because your company’s going to have to do vastly different things,” Liu says.
When he took the helm of the iconic brand, Rolls-Royce CEO Tufan Erginbilgiç realized he needed a strategy for reinventing the 120-year-old manufacturer. In a conversation with McKinsey senior partner Michael Birshan, Erginbilgiç says transformation starts with the understanding that strategic goals aren’t just numbers. They must be translated into clear, relevant initiatives and relentlessly reinforced to give employees direction and purpose. To transform Rolls-Royce, Erginbilgiç emphasized culture change, empowering employees to feel ownership of their roles in turning around the company. “My view is you need to be very consistent—consistent expectations, consistent reinforcement. And use every opportunity possible for performance management,” he says. “You need to continually tell people what good looks like so that there’s a learning process. That’s what changes culture.”
For some companies, transforming their core business may not be enough to achieve sustained growth in the face of new competition, economic disruptions, and other changes in the market landscape. According to McKinsey senior partners Ari Libarikian and Chris Hagedorn and colleagues, those companies can consider building new businesses at the same time to extend their longevity and help them outpace competitors. The value created through a transformation, whether through cost cutting or cash management, can help fund a new business venture. And such new ventures are more than eight times likelier to scale than start-ups, thanks to the advantages of a parent company’s resources and competencies. “The opportunities that emerge when marrying transformation with business building can be powerful,” the authors say.
Lead by developing your transformation strategy.
— Edited by Eric Quiñones, senior editor, New York
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by "McKinsey Leading Off" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 04:49 - 11 Nov 2024 -
How can leaders ensure that carbon markets effectively address climate change?
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Rising demand. As COP29 kicks off in Azerbaijan, world leaders are focusing on mitigating the effects of global warming. Decarbonization—the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and the reduction of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that are released into it—is a key response to climate change. With a growing number of companies turning to carbon markets to curb their carbon footprints, the demand for carbon credits is expected to increase 15 times by 2030 and 100 times by 2050, McKinsey partner Sean Kane and associate partner Charles Riesenberg reveal.
•
Getting carbon markets right. Through voluntary carbon markets, companies that make net-zero commitments frequently purchase carbon credits to offset their greenhouse gas emissions. According to McKinsey senior partner Badrinath Ramanathan, voluntary carbon markets are “still nascent”; to contribute effectively to climate action, they need to be significantly scaled. Read our McKinsey Explainer, “What is decarbonization?,” for six ways that organizations can create more certainty in carbon markets, and learn more about McKinsey’s role at the 2024 UN climate change conference.
—Edited by Belinda Yu, editor, Atlanta
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