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The week in charts
The Week in Charts
Gen Z spirituality, midtenure CFOs, and more Share these insights
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by "McKinsey Week in Charts" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 03:36 - 25 May 2024 -
EP113: AWS Services Cheat Sheet
EP113: AWS Services Cheat Sheet
This week’s system design refresher: Do You Know How Mobile Apps Are Released? (Youtube video) AWS Services Cheat Sheet A cheat sheet for API designs Azure Services Cheat Sheet How do computer programs run? SPONSOR US Collaborating on APIs is Easier With Postman (Sponsored)͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ Forwarded this email? Subscribe here for moreThis week’s system design refresher:
Do You Know How Mobile Apps Are Released? (Youtube video)
AWS Services Cheat Sheet
A cheat sheet for API designs
Azure Services Cheat Sheet
How do computer programs run?
SPONSOR US
Collaborating on APIs is Easier With Postman (Sponsored)
Whether you’re a team of four or 40,000, development teams need to collaborate on APIs. API Collaboration improves developer productivity by empowering both API producers and consumers to share, discover, and reuse high-quality API assets.
Postman revolutionizes the experience of collaborative API development with Collections and Workspaces. Used together, they enable API design, testing, and documentation, providing a shared canvas for collaborating on API assets.
Learn how Postman is giving teams of all sizes and functions the ability to rapidly iterate on API development, elevate the quality of their APIs, and extend their API workflows for large-scale initiatives.
Do You Know How Mobile Apps Are Released?
AWS Services Cheat Sheet
AWS grew from an in-house project to the market leader in cloud services, offering so many different services that even experts can find it a lot to take in.
The platform not only caters to foundational cloud needs but also stays at the forefront of emerging technologies such as machine learning and IoT, establishing itself as a bedrock for cutting-edge innovation. AWS continuously refines its array of services, ensuring advanced capabilities for security, scalability, and operational efficiency are available.
For those navigating the complex array of options, this AWS Services Guide is a helpful visual aid.
It simplifies the exploration of AWS's expansive landscape, making it accessible for users to identify and leverage the right tools for their cloud-based endeavors.
Over to you: What improvements would you like to see in AWS services based on your usage?Latest articles
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A cheat sheet for API designs
APIs expose business logic and data to external systems, so designing them securely and efficiently is important.
API key generation
We normally generate one unique app ID for each client and generate different pairs of public key (access key) and private key (secret key) to cater to different authorizations. For example, we can generate one pair of keys for read-only access and another pair for read-write access.Signature generation
Signatures are used to verify the authenticity and integrity of API requests. They are generated using the secret key and typically involve the following steps:
- Collect parameters
- Create a string to sign
- Hash the string: Use a cryptographic hash function, like HMAC (Hash-based Message Authentication Code) in combination with SHA-256, to hash the string using the secret key.Send the requests
When designing an API, deciding what should be included in HTTP request parameters is crucial. Include the following in the request parameters:
- Authentication Credentials
- Timestamp: To prevent replay attacks.
- Request-specific Data: Necessary to process the request, such as user IDs, transaction details, or search queries.
- Nonces: Randomly generated strings included in each request to ensure that each request is unique and to prevent replay attacks.Security guidelines
To safeguard APIs against common vulnerabilities and threats, adhere to these security guidelines.
Azure Services Cheat Sheet
Launching in 2010, Microsoft Azure has quickly grown to hold the No. 2 position in market share by evolving from basic offerings to a comprehensive, flexible cloud ecosystem.
Today, Azure not only supports traditional cloud applications but also caters to emerging technologies such as AI, IoT, and blockchain, making it a crucial platform for innovation and development.
As it evolves, Azure continues to enhance its capabilities to provide advanced solutions for security, scalability, and efficiency, meeting the demands of modern enterprises and startups alike. This expansion allows organizations to adapt and thrive in a rapidly changing digital landscape.
The attached illustration can serve as both an introduction and a quick reference for anyone aiming to understand Azure.
Over to you: How does your experience with Azure compare to that with AWS?
Over to you: Does the card network charge the same interchange fee for big merchants as for small merchants?How do computer programs run?
The diagram shows the steps.
User interaction and command initiation
By double-clicking a program, a user is instructing the operating system to launch an application via the graphical user interface.Program Preloading
Once the execution request has been initiated, the operating system first retrieves the program's executable file.
The operating system locates this file through the file system and loads it into memory in preparation for execution.Dependency resolution and loading
Most modern applications rely on a number of shared libraries, such as dynamic link libraries (DLLs).Allocating memory space
The operating system is responsible for allocating space in memory.
Initializing the Runtime Environment
After allocating memory, the operating system and execution environment (e.g., Java's JVM or the .NET Framework) will initialize various resources needed to run the program.System Calls and Resource Management
The entry point of a program (usually a function named `main`) is called to begin execution of the code written by the programmer.Von Neumann Architecture
In the Von Neumann architecture, the CPU executes instructions stored in memory.Program termination
Eventually, when the program has completed its task, or the user actively terminates the application, the program will begin a cleanup phase. This includes closing open file descriptors, freeing up network resources, and returning memory to the system.
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by "ByteByteGo" <bytebytego@substack.com> - 11:35 - 25 May 2024 -
What does it take to be courageous?
Readers & Leaders
Embrace your fears THIS MONTH’S PAGE-TURNERS ON BUSINESS AND BEYOND
When you hear the word “courage,” what image comes to mind? Perhaps you see a soldier in a combat zone or a firefighter rushing into a burning building. Courage is that, of course, but it isn’t confined to extreme situations. Courage is also about embracing vulnerability. It’s about tuning in to that voice inside that tells us to shake things up or hold our ground on tough issues. It’s daring to step away from what’s comfortable, whether that’s quitting your nine-to-five job to start a new business or speaking up in a meeting when you normally wouldn’t.
This edition of Readers & Leaders explores courage in its many forms. New York Times columnist and Pulitzer Prize winner Nicholas D. Kristof recounts his path from a small-town farm to every corner of the world to report on protests, massacres, civil wars, genocides, addiction, and despair; Marine Corps veteran Nate Boaz shares how he’s conquered danger head-on; Alison Taylor helps organizations discern when they should lend their voice to a contentious issue; Elaine Lin Hering shares how to build the confidence to find the voice you’ve learned to bury; and teenagers Jason Liaw and Fenley Scurlock offer a road map for aspiring entrepreneurs of all ages.
Want early access to interviews? Download the McKinsey Insights app to read the latest Author Talks now.it bears repeating
IN CASE YOU MISSED IT
TURN BACK THE PAGE
Looking for more ways to become a more courageous version of yourself? Face your fears with these popular interviews.
1. Into the unknown
2. How to conquer fear, prepare for death, and embrace your power
3. Make anxiety your ally
4. Poet Maggie Smith on loss, creativity, and changeBUSINESS BESTSELLERS TOP
8
It’s time to stock up on your beach reads. Explore April’s business bestsellers, prepared exclusively for McKinsey by Circana. Check out the full selection on McKinsey on Books.
BUSINESS OVERALL
BUSINESS HARDCOVER
ECONOMICS
DECISION MAKING
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
WORKPLACE CULTURE
COMPUTERS & AI
SUSTAINABILITY
Beyond Shareholder Primacy: Remaking Capitalism for a Sustainable Future by Stuart L. Hart (Two Rivers Distribution)
BOOKMARK THIS
If you’d like to propose a book or author for #McKAuthorTalks, please email us at Author_Talks@McKinsey.com. Due to the high volume of requests, we will respond only to those being considered.
—Edited by Eleni Kostopoulos, managing editor, New York
SHARE THESE INSIGHTS
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How to help young people cope with mental health needs
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Why children’s mental health matters Brought to you by Liz Hilton Segel, chief client officer and managing partner, global industry practices, & Homayoun Hatami, managing partner, global client capabilities
•
A universal right. About three-fourths of all mental disorders become apparent by age 24. Left untreated, these conditions can lead to adverse outcomes in physical health, learning, and future economic prospects. Zeinab Hijazi, UNICEF’s global lead on mental health, speaks about the issue with McKinsey partners Erica Coe and Kana Enomoto in a recent episode of the Conversations on Health series from McKinsey Health Institute. UNICEF considers mental health a universal right, Hijazi notes, and it has set out to collaborate with government agencies and invest in communities to support mental health in adolescents.
—Edited by Sarah Thuerk, editor, Atlanta
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by "Only McKinsey" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 01:32 - 24 May 2024 -
A new future of work, strategic alliances for gen AI, a road map to successful transformation, and more: The Daily Read Weekender
Unwind with the week's highlights Brought to you by Liz Hilton Segel, chief client officer and managing partner, global industry practices, & Homayoun Hatami, managing partner, global client capabilities
QUOTE OF THE DAY
chart of the day
Ready to unwind?
—Edited by Joyce Yoo, editor, New York
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by "McKinsey Daily Read" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 12:30 - 24 May 2024 -
You're invited! Join us for a McKinsey Global Institute virtual event on small-business productivity
Register now New from McKinsey & Company
Micro-, small, and medium-size enterprises (MSMEs) are the backbone of the global economy and make outsized contributions to employment and corporate value added. Yet their productivity is only half that of large companies in advanced economies, and even less in emerging economies. Narrowing those gaps can create substantial value and boost national competitiveness in a time of shifting global production.
Join us on Wednesday, June 5 at 11:00AM-12:00PM ET for a discussion on MGI’s latest report that studies MSMEs at a microscopic level in an effort to understand where opportunities exist for improvement, how performance depends on interactions between firms, and what successful approaches have worked around the world.
McKinsey's Olivia White and Anu Madgavkar will share insights from MGI’s latest research, then be joined by a panel of leading economists and technologists to discuss:•
The productivity gap across countries and sectors
•
How to bridge that gap—and the role large companies can play
•
How to create the right economic fabric for MSMEs to flourish in an era of shifting production
•
How improving MSME productivity can lead to economic empowerment for women and minority-owned businesses in underserved and emerging markets
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by "McKinsey & Company" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 04:52 - 23 May 2024 -
Texworld Evolution 2024
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API Security Best Practices
API Security Best Practices
APIs are the backbone of modern applications. They expose a very large surface area for attacks, increasing the risk of security vulnerabilities. Common threats include SQL injection, cross-site scripting, and distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks.͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ Forwarded this email? Subscribe here for moreLatest articles
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APIs are the backbone of modern applications. They expose a very large surface area for attacks, increasing the risk of security vulnerabilities. Common threats include SQL injection, cross-site scripting, and distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks.
That's why it's crucial to implement robust security measures to protect APIs and the sensitive data they handle. However, many companies struggle to achieve comprehensive API security coverage. They often rely solely on dynamic application security scanning or external pen testing. While these methods are valuable, they may not fully cover the API layer and its increasing attack surface.
In this week’s issue, we'll explore API security best practices. From authentication and authorization to secure communication and rate limiting, we’ll cover essential strategies for designing secure APIs.
Authentication
Authentication ensures that only authorized users or applications can access protected resources or API endpoints. Before implementing authentication, choosing the appropriate authentication mechanism is crucial based on our use case, security requirements, and compatibility with client applications.
Below are some popular authentication mechanisms for securing APIs:...
Continue reading this post for free, courtesy of Alex Xu.
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by "ByteByteGo" <bytebytego@substack.com> - 11:36 - 23 May 2024 -
Know how AI can be used to make the world a better place?
Only McKinsey
Areas where AI could help most Brought to you by Liz Hilton Segel, chief client officer and managing partner, global industry practices, & Homayoun Hatami, managing partner, global client capabilities
•
AI for social good. How can AI be used to make the world a better place? The rapidly advancing technology is already being employed to further all 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—from the goal of eliminating poverty to providing quality education for all. Generative AI is opening even more possibilities for delivering positive social change, McKinsey partner Ankit Bisht and coauthors representing McKinsey Digital explain. New McKinsey research finds that AI capabilities could be deployed in about 600 scenarios to benefit society.
•
Five areas of greatest potential. Experts we surveyed believe that AI has a high potential to make a difference in five SDGs: good health and well-being, quality education, climate action, affordable and clean energy, and sustainable cities and communities. In fact, 60% of deployments of not-for-profit AI for social good were in these areas. Read the QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey, report AI for social good: Improving lives and protecting the planet to learn what experts identify as the biggest challenges related to using AI to address SDGs.
—Edited by Belinda Yu, editor, Atlanta
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by "Only McKinsey" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 01:32 - 23 May 2024 -
How to Monitor and Secure 10,000 Clouds - Case Study
Sumo Logic
10K Clouds and Counting - Security Growth Solutions, A HashiCorp Case Study
Scalable, searchable and tiered data. Leave no byte unturned.
As you can imagine, supporting cloud-infrastructure for over 10,000 clients and HashiCorp itself, generates a massive volume of events. HashiCorp needed a speedy, efficient, and scalable security solution to support its full cloud environment.
Check out the case study to learn how they gained broad visibility, accelerated security investigations and optimized incident response.
Learn more about Sumo Logic's Cloud Infrastructure Security.Sumo Logic, Aviation House, 125 Kingsway, London WC2B 6NH, UK
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by "Sumo Logic" <marketing-info@sumologic.com> - 09:01 - 22 May 2024 -
Join our API platform insights webinar on June 18th!
Join our API platform insights webinar on June 18th!
Learn how to formulate a successful API platform strategy and accelerate your API platform maturityHi Md Abul,
Did you know that 92% of companies are hailing the importance of API platforms in their digital strategies? This isn't just a statistic; it's the driving force behind innovation across industries.
Sign up for our webinar on the 18th of June, in collaboration with Research HQ, as we dive into the API platform insights 2024 report, revealing the secrets of API platforms and their pivotal role in today's digital realm.
📅 Date: 18th of June
🕙 Time: 10 am EDT / 3 pm BST
📍 Location: ZoomHere's what's on the agenda:
- Learn how to boost operational efficiency with API strategies
- Navigate API platform maturity evaluations like a pro
- Tackle tough API management challenges head-on
- Find out how AI is reshaping the essence of API platforms
But wait, there's more! Every registered attendee will receive an exclusive copy of the full report and access to the on-demand recording.
Thanks,
Budha & teamTyk, 87a Worship Street, London, City of London EC2A 2BE, United Kingdom, +44 (0)20 3409 1911
by "Budhaditya Bhattacharya" <budha@tyk.io> - 06:00 - 22 May 2024 -
What to do when there is no shipping space in the peak season?
Here is Yori fm Winsail International Logistics Co.,Ltd
Please see the below weekly Ocean/Air freight rates:
Ocean freight rate:
SHANGHAI - DAMMAM USD2405/20GP; USD 3625/40HQ
SHENZHEN - DAMMAM USD 3230/20GP; USD 4550/40HQ
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CAN -DMM : 5.2USD/KG
Feel free to let me know if you need other main ports
My email: overseas.12@winsaillogistics.com
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by "Yori Mo" <winsaillogistics009@gmail.com> - 02:46 - 22 May 2024 -
What motivates gen AI talent to stay in their jobs?
Only McKinsey
Steps to help retain workers Brought to you by Liz Hilton Segel, chief client officer and managing partner, global industry practices, & Homayoun Hatami, managing partner, global client capabilities
•
Ready to quit. Gen AI skills are already in demand in many fields. Yet new McKinsey research shows that people who are most fluent in some of the skills required to engage with and build use cases for gen AI are flight risks, McKinsey senior partners Aaron De Smet and Brooke Weddle explain on a recent episode of The McKinsey Podcast. In fact, more than half of gen AI workers who self-identify as creators and heavy users say they plan to quit their jobs over the next three to six months.
—Edited by Belinda Yu, editor, Atlanta
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by "Only McKinsey" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 01:35 - 22 May 2024 -
A better life everyone can afford: Lifting a quarter billion people to economic empowerment
Build more balanced economies This email contains information about McKinsey's research, insights, services, or events. By opening our emails or clicking on links, you agree to our use of cookies and web tracking technology. For more information on how we use and protect your information, please review our privacy policy.
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by "McKinsey & Company" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 12:46 - 22 May 2024 -
Introducing Remote Watchtower: Your Essential Solution for Global Compliance
Introducing Remote Watchtower: Your Essential Solution for Global Compliance
Read on to see how Remote Watchtower can help you...Hi MD,
Today, compliance with HR regulations is essential, no matter where you or your employees are based. Failing to adhere to these regulations can result in significant penalties, hefty fines, and damage to your reputation, all of which can impact your growth and operational efficiency.
At Remote, we understand the stakes involved, and we are fully dedicated to ensuring your compliance. That's why we're excited to introduce Remote Watchtower: A comprehensive compliance safeguard for confidently navigating complex global laws and ensuring compliance.
With Remote Watchtower, you will:
- Stay compliant with Remote Watchtower's proactive alerts about the latest changes in regulations impacting your team.
- Save time and money as we seamlessly incorporate necessary changes into your account, without any additional effort or cost on your part.
- Experience peace of mind, knowing you have a dedicated team ensuring your HR practices remain compliant and up to date.
And so much more…
Remote Watchtower is available to all our EOR, Contractor Management, and Payroll users. If you are considering Remote as your global HR partner, you will have full, instant access to our comprehensive compliance solutions.
👀 Learn more about Remote Watchtower here.
We're very excited about this new step to ensure compliance for our valued customers. If you have any questions or need assistance, please don't hesitate to reach out to us at help@remote.com or simply reply to this email. We’re here to answer any questions!
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RE: Consumer Electronics Show - CES 2024 (Post Show)
Hi,
I was wondering if you had a chance to review my below email that I sent to you.
If you are interested, I can get back to you with Counts and Cost for the same.
Thanks,
Terry
From: terry.baker@datasmining.com <terry.baker@datasmining.com>
Sent: Friday, May 17, 2024 1:18 PM
To: 'info@learn.odoo.com' <info@learn.odoo.com>
Subject: Consumer Electronics Show - CES 2024 (Post Show)Hi,
The verified & updated contacts attendees list of Consumer Electronics Show - CES 2024 is available with us.
Attendees are: - Analyst, Content Developer, Distributor, Buyer, Engineer, Manager/Store Manager/Product Manager, Manufacturer’s Representative, Service Technician, Systems Installer/Integrator & More.
List includes: - Contact Name, Email address, Phone Number, Mailing Address, Job Title etc.
If you are interested in the list, I shall share the counts & cost details.
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Terry Baker - Marketing and Event Coordinator
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by terry.baker@datasmining.com - 02:18 - 21 May 2024 -
How Slack Built a Distributed Cron Execution System for Scale
How Slack Built a Distributed Cron Execution System for Scale
👋Goodbye low test coverage and slow QA cycles (Sponsored) Bugs sneak out when less than 80% of user flows are tested before shipping. But getting that kind of coverage — and staying there — is hard and pricey for any sized team. QA Wolf takes testing off your plate:͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ Forwarded this email? Subscribe here for more👋Goodbye low test coverage and slow QA cycles (Sponsored)
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Have you ever stretched a simple tool to its absolute limits before you upgraded?
We do it all the time. And so do the big companies that operate on a massive scale. This is because simple things can sometimes take you much further than you initially think. Of course, you may have to pay with some toil and tears.
This is exactly what Slack, a $28 billion company with 35+ million users, did for its cron execution workflow that handles critical functionalities. Instead of moving to some other new-age solutions, they rebuilt their cron execution system from the ground up to run jobs reliably at their scale.
In today’s post, we’ll look at how Slack architected a distributed cron execution system and the choices made in the overall design.
The Role of Cron Jobs at Slack
As you already know, Slack is one of the most popular platforms for team collaboration.
Due to its primary utility as a communication tool, Slack is super dependent on the right notification reaching the right person at the right time.
However, as the platform witnessed user and feature growth, Slack faced challenges in maintaining the reliability of its notification system, which largely depended on cron jobs.
For reference, cron jobs are used to automate repetitive tasks. You can configure a cron job to ensure that specific scripts or commands run at predefined intervals without manual intervention.
Cron jobs play a crucial role in Slack's notification system by making sure that messages and reminders reach users on time. A lot of the critical functionality at Slack relies on these cron scripts. For example,
Sending timely reminders to users.
Delivering email notifications to keep the users informed about important updates in the team.
Pushing message notifications to users so that they don’t miss critical conversations.
Performing regular database clean-ups to maintain system performance.
As Slack grew, there has been a massive growth in the number of cron scripts and the amount of data processed by these scripts. Ultimately, this caused a dip in the overall reliability of the execution environment.
The Issues with Cron Jobs
Some of the challenges and issues Slack faced with their original cron execution approach were as follows:
Maintainability Issues: Managing many cron scripts on a single node became cumbersome and error-prone as Slack’s functionalities expanded. Tasks like updating, troubleshooting, and monitoring the scripts required a lot of effort from the engineering team.
Cost-ineffective Vertical Scaling: As the number of cron scripts increased, Slack tried to vertically scale the node by adding more CPU and RAM. However, this approach quickly became cost-ineffective, as the hardware requirements grew disproportionately to the number of scripts.
Single Point of Failure: Relying on a single node to execute all cron jobs introduced a significant risk to Slack’s critical functionality. Any misconfigurations, hardware failures, or software issues on the node could bring down the entire notification system.
To solve these issues, Slack decided to build a brand new cron execution service that was more reliable and scalable than the original approach.
The High-Level Cron Execution Architecture
The below diagram shows the high-level cron execution architecture.
There are 3 main components in this design. Let’s look at each of them in more detail.
Scheduled Job Conductor
Slack developed a new execution service. It was written in Go and deployed on Bedrock.
Bedrock is Slack’s in-house platform that wraps around Kubernetes, providing an additional abstraction layer and functionality for Slack’s specific needs. It builds upon Kubernetes and adds some key features such as:
Simplified deployment
Custom resource definitions specific to Slack’s infrastructure
Enhanced monitoring and logging
Integration with Slack’s infrastructure
The new service mimics the behavior of cron by utilizing a Go-based cron library while benefiting from the scalability and reliability provided by Kubernetes.
The below diagram shows how the Scheduled Job Conductor works in practice.
It had some key properties that we should consider.
1 - Scalability through Kubernetes Deployment
By deploying the cron execution service on Bedrock, Slack gains the ability to easily scale up multiple pods as needed.
As you might be aware, Kubernetes provides a flexible infrastructure for containerized applications. You can dynamically adjust the number of pods based on the workload.
2 - Leader Follower Architecture
Interestingly, Slack's cron execution service does not process requests on multiple pods simultaneously.
Instead, they adopt a leader-follower architecture, where only one pod (the leader) is responsible for scheduling jobs, while the other pods remain in standby mode.
This design decision may seem counterintuitive, as it appears to introduce a single point of failure. However, the Slack team determined that synchronizing the nodes would be a more significant challenge than the potential risk of having a single leader.
A couple of advantages of the leader-follower architecture are as follows:
Rapid Failover: If the leader pod goes down, Kubernetes can quickly promote one of the standby pods to take over the work. This minimizes downtime and makes the cron execution service highly available.
Simplified Synchronization: By having a single leader, Slacks avoids the complexity of dealing with conflicts.
3 - Offloading Resource-Intensive Tasks
The job conductor service is only responsible for job scheduling. The actual execution is handled by worker nodes.
This separation of concerns allows the cron execution service to focus on job scheduling while the job queue handles resource-intensive tasks.
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The Job Queue
Slack's cron execution service relies on a powerful asynchronous compute platform called the Job Queue to handle the resource-intensive task of running scripts.
The Job Queue is a critical component of Slack's infrastructure, processing a whopping 9 billion jobs per day.
The Job Queue consists of a series of so-called theoretical “queues” through which various types of jobs flow. Each script triggered by a cron job is treated as a single job within the Job Queue.
See the below diagram for reference:
The key components of the job queue architecture are as follows:
Kafka: Jobs are initially stored in Kafka since it provides durable storage. Kafka ensures that jobs are persisted and can be recovered in case of system failures or backups.
Redis: From Kafka, jobs are moved into Redis (an in-memory data store) for short-term storage. Redis allows additional metadata, such as the identity of the worker executing the job, to be stored alongside the job itself. This metadata is important for tracking and managing job execution.
Job Workers: Jobs are dispatched from Redis to job workers, which are nodes that execute the script. Each job worker is capable of running the scripts associated with the jobs it receives.
Slack achieves several important benefits by using the Job Queue:
Offloading compute and memory concerns: The Job Queue is designed to handle a massive amount of work, with a capacity far exceeding the requirements of the cron execution service. Offloading the compute and memory demands of the running scripts helps keep the cron execution service lightweight.
Isolation and performance: The Job Queue lets them keep the jobs isolated on their specific “queues” so that the jobs triggered by the cron execution service are processed smoothly. There is no impact on them due to other jobs in the system.
Reliability and fault tolerance: The Job Queue’s architecture ensures that jobs are stored durably and recoverable in case of failures.
Reduce development and maintenance efforts: This was probably the most important factor since leveraging an existing, battle-tested system like the Job Queue helped Slack reduce the development time required to build the cron execution service.
Vitess Database Table for Job Tracking
To boost the reliability of their cron execution service, Slack also employed a Vitess table for deduplication and job tracking.
Vitess is a database clustering system for horizontal scaling of MySQL. It provides a scalable and highly available solution for managing large-scale data.
A couple of important requirements handled by Vitess are as described as follows:
1 - Deduplication
Within Slack’s original cron system, they used flocks, a Linux utility for managing locking in scripts so that only one copy of a script runs at a time.
While this approach worked fine, there were cases where a script’s execution time exceeded its recurrence intervals, leading to the possibility of two copies running concurrently.
To handle this issue, Slack introduced a Vitess table to handle deduplication.
Here’s how it works:
When a new job is triggered, Slack records its execution as a new row in the Vitess table.
The job’s status is updated as it progresses through the system, with possible states including “enqueued”, “in progress”, and “done”.
Before kicking off a new run of a job, Slack queries the table to check if there are any active instances of the same job already running. This query is made efficient by using an index on the script names.
The below diagram shows some sample data stored in Vitess.
2 - Job Tracking and Monitoring
The Vitess table also helps with job tracking and monitoring since it contains information about the state of each job.
The job tracking functionality is exposed through a simple web page that displays the execution details. Developers can easily look up the state of their script runs and any errors encountered during execution.
Conclusion
One can debate whether using cron was the right decision for Slack when it came to job scheduling.
But it can also be said that organizations that choose the simplest solution for critical functionalities are more likely to grow into organizations of Slack’s size. On the other hand, companies that deploy solutions that try to solve all the problems when they have 0 customers never become that big. The difference is an unrelenting focus on solving the business problem rather than building fancy solutions from the beginning.
Slack’s journey from a single cron box to a sophisticated, distributed cron execution service shows how simple solutions can be used to build large-scale systems.
References:
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by "ByteByteGo" <bytebytego@substack.com> - 11:36 - 21 May 2024 -
How things change when employees are seen as artists and athletes
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Actions to build healthy workplaces Brought to you by Liz Hilton Segel, chief client officer and managing partner, global industry practices, & Homayoun Hatami, managing partner, global client capabilities
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How gen AI changes work. Workers are disengaged to varying degrees and often burned out. The big picture is that if generative AI (gen AI) can take care of rote tasks, the nature of work is poised to change for millions of people. Employees may be freed up to focus on work that involves judgment, innovation, creativity, and collaboration. Because this higher-level cognitive work is harder to plan for and manage, it requires much more than the absence of burnout: it demands a culture of thriving, McKinsey senior partner Brooke Weddle and colleagues say.
—Edited by Belinda Yu, editor, Atlanta
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by "Only McKinsey" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 01:20 - 21 May 2024