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      • Everyone’s Talking About AI, But Who’s Actually Getting It Right?

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        Hope you had a great Memorial Day weekend!

        If your LinkedIn feed is anything like mine, it’s overflowing with bold claims about how AI is changing everything, transforming industries, and solving every business problem under the sun.

        But here’s the reality we’re seeing on the ground: most organizations still don’t know what to do with AI. They're either overwhelmed, underprepared, or chasing shiny tools without a strategy. And without clean data, clear governance, and business alignment, even the best AI initiatives fizzle out.

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      • How Amazon Key Opens 100 Million Doors Every Year

        How Amazon Key Opens 100 Million Doors Every Year

        We recently had the wonderful opportunity to sit with Kaushik Mani and Vijay Nagarajan from the Amazon Key team to learn how they built this system and the challenges they faced.
        ͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­
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        Note: This article is written in collaboration with the engineering team of Amazon Key. Special thanks to Kaushik Mani (Director at Amazon) and Vijay Nagarajan (Engineering Leader) from Amazon Key for walking us through the architecture and challenges they faced while building this system.  All credit for the technical details and diagrams shared in this article goes to the Amazon Key Engineering Team. 

        Picture a customer buzzing with excitement for their package, only to find a "delivery failed" slip because a locked gate stood in the way.

        That’s what Amazon faced in 2018. ​​At the time, delivery delays were frequently caused by delivery associates being unable to enter access-controlled areas in residential and commercial properties, including gated communities, leading to missed deliveries and poor customer experiences.

        The access control systems in such areas were never designed to work with modern logistics. Moreover, the hardware systems were wildly fragmented with no common standard. Many of these devices were hardwired into buildings in ways that make network access unreliable or downright impossible.

        To bridge this gap, Amazon launched an initiative to address a common but impactful delivery challenge: how to provide drivers with secure access to gated residential and commercial communities and buildings.

        The result was Amazon Key: a system that allows verified delivery associates to unlock gates and doors at the right time, with the right permissions, and only for the duration needed to complete a delivery. What started with a small internal team and a few device installations has now grown into a system that unlocks 100 million doors annually, across 10+ countries and 4 continents, with five unlocks every second.

        We recently had the wonderful opportunity to sit with Kaushik Mani and Vijay Nagarajan from the Amazon Key team to learn how they built this system and the challenges they faced.

        In this article, we are bringing you our findings and what we learned about Amazon’s culture of entrepreneurship that played a key role in making Amazon Key a reality.

        The Beginnings

        The origins of Amazon Key can be traced back to 2016. 

        Upon moving to Seattle to work for Amazon, Kaushik noticed a number of underutilized parking spots in buildings. However, technology to open them up to users was lacking. Kaushik worked on his own initiative to solve this problem for a Seattle apartment building. The solution needed to address a highly fragmented category of garage door mechanisms.

        Kaushik invented a cloud-connected universal key that worked on any electrically controlled lock. This later became known as Amazon Key. Kaushik deployed it at customer locations to validate the solution. He wrote the business plan around his invention and pitched it to several leaders across Amazon. After 6 months of pitching the idea and receiving several refusals, Kaushik was eventually funded by Marketplace.

        He worked on the idea for a year, but unfortunately, no customers signed up. Building owners loved the idea of selling parking but worried about trust and safety aspects of allowing access to anyone. So, in 2018, he pivoted the business case to benefit only last-mile deliveries for building access and launched the first version of Amazon Key with 1 firmware and 1 hardware engineer. 

        From a stats point of view, Amazon delivery associates deliver over a billion packages annually to tens of millions of customers living in access-restricted apartment buildings in the US, EU, and Japan. Without Amazon Key, a driver must engage with the customer, property manager, or other residents to receive access when faced with an access control barrier. This results in packages not being delivered on time and reliably due to drivers not gaining access to the apartment building/gated communities. One example highlighted by the team involved a customer expecting a cereal delivery at 4 a.m., timed precisely so breakfast could be prepared on schedule. If the delivery associate couldn’t get past a gate, that delivery would fail, turning what should be a seamless experience into a broken promise.

        Not having on-demand access to these buildings was a core capability gap, resulting in repeated defects, the impact of which started becoming more pronounced as customer demand and delivery speeds increased. This shifted the idea from “interesting” to “strategic necessity”.

        By 2018, Amazon Key entered early-stage operations. The rollout was intentionally conservative, targeting just 100 buildings to start, followed by another 100 shortly after. But even in this narrow scope, the system’s potential became clear. 

        Still, scaling was far from straightforward. As Kaushik Mani put it brilliantly: "It takes $5 to build the solution, but $95 to make it secure." That ratio became even more daunting in the context of Amazon’s global footprint, where every expansion introduced a new set of hardware, protocols, and deployment challenges.

        And that’s where the Amazon Key engineering team came together to build a solution that made this scale possible.

        The First Attempt: Serverless

        Amazon started where most pragmatic teams start: build the simplest thing that works.

        They created a small, Ethernet-connected device that could physically integrate with most ACS (Access-Control System) hardware. When a delivery associate showed up at a gate, they’d tap in the Amazon Flex App, which triggered a cloud command to the device via AWS IoT to open the gate.

        See the diagram below that shows this setup:

        The system stack looked something like this:

        • Hardware: A small, Ethernet-connected device installed on-site, physically wired to the building’s existing access control systems. It could trigger unlocks for 95% of gate types.

        • AWS IoT: Provided secure, two-way communication between the device and the cloud.

        • AWS Lambda (Java): Handled unlock requests, triggered by delivery associates using the mobile app.

        • DynamoDB: Stores metadata like device status, gate mappings, and property permissions.

        • Amazon Flex App: The application delivery associates use to initiate access requests when approaching a gate.

        The early design was lean, minimal, and pragmatic. The goal was to give Amazon delivery associates a reliable way to unlock residential gates. This approach worked well for limited properties. 

        However, as Amazon Key expanded, hundreds of devices became thousands. A few cities became multiple countries. The rapid expansion created issues for the solution’s scalability in different areas:

        1 - Device and Infra Challenges

        When deploying access devices across thousands of properties, physical installation constraints quickly became a major factor in hardware design.

        Space limitations were a frequent issue. Callboxes, where devices were often installed, have very limited internal space. Larger hardware simply could not fit inside these enclosures. Similarly, at common installation points like mail rooms, front doors, or outdoor callboxes, Ethernet connectivity was often unavailable, making it impractical to rely on wired networking as a standard installation requirement. Running new Ethernet cables required drilling through walls, digging up pathways, or convincing building managers to modify shared infrastructure.

        Initially, the device supported two relay ports and two Wiegand ports, allowing it to control multiple access points and interact with various types of legacy systems. However, based on field experience, the design was streamlined to one relay and one Wiegand port. This change reduced hardware complexity and footprint, which made installations easier and more reliable.

        Over time, the team also decided to stop using the Wiegand interface during installations. The main reason was operational: Wiegand credentials often change periodically, making long-term integration unreliable and harder to maintain without frequent updates.

        2 - Serverless Backend with Java Cold Starts

        Another problem the team faced was Java-based Lambdas with higher cold start times. It might be fine for a background task, but not when a delivery associate is standing at a gate holding a package to deliver.

        Also, the initial backend design used a shared gateway across countries. This meant launching in new regions required coordination with multiple teams, environments, and deployment pipelines. 

        3 - Field Resilience

        The unlock commands were fire-and-forget.

        The delivery associates had no feedback. They’d tap “unlock” and hope for the best. If a device was offline, the system didn’t know. Also, the operations team couldn’t see device health or network quality remotely. Troubleshooting meant sending people into the field, which was slow, expensive, and frustrating.

        Phase 2: Re-architecting for Scale

        The early Lambda-based design was fast to build, but faced issues in terms of scalability. Therefore, the Amazon Key engineering team decided to design the system for a global scale.

        Two key changes they made were as follows:

        1 - Moving Away from Ethernet

        No matter how smart the backend was, if the device couldn’t connect reliably, nothing else mattered. So the hardware team built something better.

        They created a new, compact, cellular-enabled device, small enough to install discreetly and robust enough to operate in the field. It had multi-carrier support baked in, spanning 70+ countries, with failover if one network dropped. It removed the earlier dependency on local building infrastructure.

        This change shifted the device from “hard to deploy” to “install and forget.” It also gave Amazon a repeatable, global deployment model, which was critical for international rollout.

        2 - The Move to Containers

        The backend team knew Lambda wasn’t going to cut it anymore: not at this scale

        The delivery associates needed real-time unlocks. That meant persistent device connections, low tail latency, and guaranteed CPU availability. Lambda (especially with Java) wasn’t ideal for that. Therefore, they moved to ECS Fargate, Amazon’s container-native compute layer.

        So, why was ECS Fargate chosen specifically?

        Vijay Nagarajan from the Amazon Key engineering team gave a few important reasons for this choice:

        • Fargate allows fine-grained control over vCPU and memory settings, which helped the team optimize performance based on real-world load.

        • Deploying across multiple Availability Zones (AZs) allowed the system to balance cost and availability.

        • Fargate can scale based on concrete indicators like outstanding request count, memory pressure, or CPU usage.

        • Compared to running the same workload on EC2, Fargate proved to be more cost-efficient, especially since it avoided the operational burden of managing EC2 instances.

        • Unlike Lambda, which spins up and tears down execution contexts, Fargate tasks remain provisioned and continuously running, making them well-suited for latency-sensitive workflows like device unlocks

        In short, Fargate gave them the control and performance of EC2, without the ops overhead of managing VMs.

        The hardest part of this evolution was surgically moving life traffic to the newer services. The team had to create feature flags to support both the flows. This meant that every time they introduced a new service, they had to slowly migrate traffic to the newer service.

        To make things clear, Lambda wasn’t completely abandoned. There are still a few use cases that rely on Lambda, such as:

        • One-time device JITR registration that happens at the factory.

        • During installation, they also take the image of where the device is installed. The post-processing to scan for malware/size resolution is still a Lambda function.

        Benefits

        Together, cellular hardware and containerized backend unlocked a new class of capabilities such as:

        • Faster unlock response times (<1.5s consistently).

        • Global expansion without localized network constraints.

        • The ability to handle edge cases gracefully, like intermittent connectivity, retries, and failovers.

        It also laid the foundation for the next evolution: breaking the system into modular services, standardizing workflows, and monitoring what matters.

        Adopting Microservices

        The move to ECS Fargate was also a chance to break apart the system into clean, well-scoped services. Amazon Key went from a collection of Lambda functions to a cohesive service-oriented architecture that could be evolved in the future.

        See the diagram below for a high-level view of the system running on ECS Fargate:

        This wasn’t microservices for microservices’ sake. Each service took care of a real need. Here are the details of the key services that were a part of the overall architecture:

        1 - Provisioning App

        This service was developed to simplify the installation process and support onboarding new properties into the Amazon Key backend.

        2 - Key Gateway Service 

        This service handles requests originating from the Flex App when a delivery is scheduled to an Amazon Key-enabled property. It also enabled the system to support international launches by managing region-specific traffic routing.

        3 - Access Management Service

        This service maintains the relationships between gates, properties, and devices. It also manages mappings with Amazon Logistics and associated job workflows such as installation and maintenance.

        4 - Device Management Service

        Built on top of AWS IoT, this service provided a wrapper around commands sent to devices. It supported both synchronous and asynchronous APIs and streamed device performance metrics into Redshift for analysis.

        5 - AMZL Onboarding Service

        This service listens to events from the Access Management Service and onboards properties into the Amazon Logistics system, allowing them to be used in routing and delivery workflows.

        6 - OTA Management Service

        This service provides pipelines for deploying firmware updates to devices in the field. It supported two modes:

        • One-time OTA used to test firmware with a small cohort of devices.

        • Campaign-based OTA, which rolled out updates across device pools grouped by geographical location until all were up to date.

        7 - Flex App

        The Flex App is used by Amazon delivery associates to complete package deliveries. It integrates with Amazon Key to support access control during deliveries.

        8 - Data Lake and Analytics

        Metrics from different services are pushed into Redshift for analytics. Dashboards built using AWS QuickSight provide both aggregated summaries and device-level drilldowns.

        The Cellular Connectivity Challenge

        Switching from Ethernet to cellular connectivity solved key deployment issues but introduced new challenges. 

        Devices were installed in a variety of environments, such as exposed call boxes outside communities or electrical rooms located deep within buildings, and faced varying connectivity conditions. Cellular performance was inconsistent and location-dependent, often changing throughout the day. These fluctuations impacted the reliability of time-sensitive operations like unlock requests, especially during delivery hours.

        To address this, the team developed the Intelligent Connection Manager (ICM) to improve device behavior when cellular performance is inconsistent, achieving better availability, failover, and reconnection times. 

        ICM enables the system to respond to real-world variability in connectivity without manual intervention, helping maintain access availability during critical delivery windows.

        Here’s what the ICM does in more detail:

        • Monitoring: ICM continuously monitors device performance using:

          • EventBridge to capture real-time events

          • Redshift for historical trend analysis

          • Step Functions to coordinate health checks and remediation workflows

          • S3 for storage and processing support

        • Analysis: The system identifies poorly performing devices by evaluating recent interaction history and applying defined rules.

        • Remediation: When issues are detected, ICM triggers automated corrective actions such as:

          • Rebooting the device

          • Rescanning the network

          • Switching cellular carriers

        If these measures are not sufficient, the metrics help the operations team determine when manual servicing is required.

        Phase 3: Platform Expansion

        As Amazon Key matured, the team shifted its focus from solving Amazon's internal delivery challenges to building a general-purpose access platform. The system had already proven it could scale reliably. The next step was to extend that capability to external delivery providers.

        In 2023, Amazon Key announced its integration with Grubhub. This marked the transition from a closed product to a more extensible platform. To support this, the team introduced a new architectural component: the Partner Gateway Service.

        This service acts as a boundary between Amazon Key's internal systems and third-party applications. It exposes a clean, stable API that allows vetted external partners to request access to secure properties without revealing internal implementation details.

        See the diagram below that shows the expanded architecture:

        The Partner Gateway Service was designed to ensure that expansion did not compromise system integrity or performance. It provides features such as:

        • Partner onboarding workflows: Validates and registers new third-party delivery partners into the system.

        • Authentication and authorization: Ensures that only approved entities can request unlocks, and only under permitted conditions.

        • Rate limiting and security enforcement: Prevents abuse and isolates faults to protect core services.

        • Interface abstraction: Maintains a clear separation between partner-facing APIs and internal services to avoid tight coupling.

        Security and Access Control

        Amazon Key uses different authentication and authorization mechanisms for internal and third-party delivery systems, tailored to their integration models and security requirements.

        For Amazon’s internal delivery flow, authentication is performed by AMZL (Amazon Logistics) services when a driver uses the Flex App. Once the delivery associate arrives at the property and it has been verified that the specific driver has an assigned delivery for that property at this time, Amazon Key’s backend issues a short-lived token to unlock the gate. This token is used to authorize access during the delivery attempt.

        For third-party delivery providers, mutual TLS (mTLS) is used for authentication during the onboarding process. A profile is created per partner, and all communication is secured through mTLS to validate both client and server identities. The Partner Gateway Service handles authorization and request orchestration for these external systems.

        Some key points shared by Vijay Nagarajan regarding access expiry and revocation are as follows:

        • Access is controlled through a time-bound token issued when the driver arrives and parks at the location.

        • The token is extended at 30-second intervals during the delivery window to maintain access while the delivery is in progress.

        • In failure scenarios, such as device unavailability due to power loss, the system notifies the driver through the Flex App that 1-click access is not available. In such cases, the drivers can continue accessing the property through standard access mechanisms (for example, through the lobby). One such example cited was power loss during a hurricane in Florida, which made certain devices unreachable.

        Architectural Boundaries and Team Ownership

        Operating so many services and features requires Amazon Key to ensure a clean separation of concerns. Here’s a quick look at the distribution of responsibility and the overall team composition.

        • The Gateway Service is responsible for performing authentication and authorization, and for orchestrating requests from client applications.

        • The Access Management Service stores and manages the relationships between devices, access points, installation jobs, and address mappings.

        • The Partner Gateway Service also handles authentication and authorization, using mutual TLS (mTLS), and orchestrates requests from external delivery partners.

        • The Device Service does not hold contextual information about where a device is located. Instead, it maintains knowledge about the type of device and the operations it supports.

        The backend infrastructure team is responsible for managing all these services. The broader team is organized into three focus areas:

        • App Development

        • Front-End Development

        • Backend Common Infrastructure

        Results and Impact

        By rethinking both hardware and software architecture, Amazon Key was able to evolve from a niche internal solution focused on delivery associates into a large-scale, extensible access control platform. The results reflect a system that is not only convenient, secure, reliable and adaptable to operational realities, but also now serves a wide variety of audiences including: property owners/managers, residents, and guests, across single-family, multifamily, and commercial properties.

        Today, Amazon Key supports over 100 million successful unlocks annually with extremely high system availability and low end-to-end latency from app tap to physical unlock. Because of this, first-attempt delivery success  has improved, and defects per building has reduced.

        These improvements directly contributed to more efficient deliveries, lower support costs, and a more seamless access control experience, at scale.

        Learnings

        Here are some key learnings from Amazon Key’s experience building their system:

        • Evolve as You Scale: The initial serverless design was ideal for fast iteration, but couldn’t support the demands of a global system with strict latency and connectivity requirements. Transitioning to ECS Fargate enabled more consistent performance and stateful processing.

        • Measure What Matters: Instead of measuring generic uptime, the team focused on availability during delivery hours. This shifted the optimization focus to periods that affect end users, resulting in more actionable metrics and better system tuning.

        • Standardization Enables Speed: Using a consistent tech stack (Java across services, Infrastructure as Code, and AWS-native tooling) allowed the team to move faster without sacrificing maintainability. Reuse became a strength rather than a constraint.

        • Plan for Imperfect Environments: Many design decisions assume ideal conditions. In practice, field deployments introduced a range of variables: poor signal strength, hardware variation, and environmental impact. Designing with these constraints in mind was key to building resilience.

        • Operate Based on Data: By feeding all system metrics into a centralized analytics pipeline, the team could proactively identify issues, validate changes, and understand usage patterns. This led to faster incident response and continuous system improvement.

        • Use Tools Where They Fit: Lambda was not abandoned entirely. It remained useful for stateless, low-latency tasks. However, core workflows were moved to ECS for predictability and control. Tool choice became a matter of fit, not philosophy.

        • Design for Growth: The Partner Gateway Service shows the value of designing for extensibility. It enabled Amazon Key to expand from a single-use product into a multi-tenant platform, supporting external partners without disrupting core operations.

        At the end, Vijay Nagarajan shared one key point regarding the journey: “It’s easy to say we would have arrived at the scaling architecture right away. But there are so many unknowns when we scale, especially in the business we are in. We have to inevitably grow through the learning phase. We could have potentially accelerated the learning phase by getting some of the basic metrics/telemetry from the device and prioritizing the OTA infrastructure. But for the rest, we are evolving in the right direction.”


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      • How Uber Eats Handles Billions of Daily Search Queries

        How Uber Eats Handles Billions of Daily Search Queries

        In this article, we look at the breakdown of how Uber Eats rebuilt its search platform to handle this scale without degrading performance or relevance.
        ͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­͏     ­
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        Disclaimer: The details in this post have been derived from the articles/videos shared online by the Uber Eats engineering team. All credit for the technical details goes to the Uber Eats Engineering Team. The links to the original articles and videos are present in the references section at the end of the post. We’ve attempted to analyze the details and provide our input about them. If you find any inaccuracies or omissions, please leave a comment, and we will do our best to fix them.

        Uber Eats set out to increase the number of merchants available to users by a significant multiple. The team referred to it as nX growth. This wasn’t a simple matter of onboarding more restaurants. It meant expanding into new business lines like groceries, retail, and package delivery, each with its scale and technical demands.

        To accommodate this, the search functionality needed to support this growth across all discovery surfaces:

        • Home feed, where users browse curated carousels.

        • Search, covering restaurant names, cuisines, and individual dishes.

        • Suggestions, which include autocomplete and lookahead logic.

        • Ads, which plug into the same backend and share the same constraints.

        The challenge wasn’t just to show more. It was to do so without increasing latency, without compromising ranking quality, and without introducing inconsistency across surfaces.

        A few core problems made this difficult:

        • Vertical expansion: Grocery stores often include over 100,000 items per location. Retail and package delivery add their indexing complexity.

        • Geographic expansion: The platform shifted from neighborhood-level search to intercity delivery zones. 

        • Search scale: More merchants and more items meant exponential growth in the number of documents to index and retrieve.

        • Latency pressure: Every additional document increases compute costs in ranking and retrieval. Early attempts to scale selection caused 4x spikes in query latency.

        To support nX merchant growth, the team had to rethink multiple layers of the search stack from ingestion and indexing to sharding, ranking, and query execution. In this article, we look at the breakdown of how Uber Eats rebuilt its search platform to handle this scale without degrading performance or relevance.


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        Search Architecture Overview

        Uber Eats search is structured as a multi-stage pipeline, built to balance large-scale retrieval with precise, context-aware ranking. 

        Each stage in the architecture has a specific focus, starting from document ingestion to final ranking. Scaling the system for millions of merchants and items means optimizing each layer without introducing bottlenecks downstream.

        Ingestion and Indexing

        The system ingests documents from multiple verticals (restaurants, groceries, retail) and turns them into searchable entities.

        There are two primary ingestion paths:

        • Batch Ingestion: Large-scale updates run through Apache Spark jobs. These jobs transform raw source-of-truth data into Lucene-compatible search documents, partition them into shards, and store the resulting indexes in an object store. This is the backbone for most index builds.

        • Streaming Ingestion: Real-time updates flow through Kafka as a write-ahead log. A dedicated ingestion service consumes these updates, maps them to the appropriate shard, and writes them into the live index.

        • Priority-Aware Ingestion: Not all updates are equal. The system supports priority queues so urgent updates, like price changes or store availability, are ingested ahead of less critical ones. This ensures high-priority content reflects quickly in search results.

        Retrieval Layer

        The retrieval layer acts as the front line of the search experience. Its job is to fetch a broad set of relevant candidates for downstream rankers to evaluate.

        • Recall-focused retrieval: The system fetches as many potentially relevant documents as possible, maximizing coverage. This includes stores, items, and metadata mapped to the user’s location.

        • Geo-aware matching: Given that most searches are tied to physical delivery, the retrieval process incorporates location constraints using geo-sharding and hex-based delivery zones. Queries are scoped to shards that map to the user’s region.

        First-Pass Ranking

        Once the initial candidate set is retrieved, a lightweight ranking phase begins.

        • Lexical matching: Uses direct term overlap between the user’s query and the indexed document fields.

        • Fast filtering: Filters out low-relevance or out-of-scope results quickly, keeping only candidates worth further evaluation.

        • Efficiency-focused: This stage runs directly on the data nodes to avoid unnecessary network fanout. It's designed for speed, not deep personalization.

        Hydration Layer

        Before documents reach the second-pass ranker, they go through a hydration phase.

        Each document is populated with additional context: delivery ETAs, promotional offers, loyalty membership info, and store images. This ensures downstream components have all the information needed for ranking and display.

        Second-Pass Ranking

        This is where the heavier computation happens, evaluating business signals and user behavior.

        • Personalized scoring: Models incorporate past orders, browsing patterns, time of day, and historical conversion rates to prioritize results that match the user’s intent.

        • Business metric optimization: Ranking is also shaped by conversion likelihood, engagement metrics, and performance of past campaigns, ensuring search results aren’t just relevant, but also effective for both user and platform.

        The Query Scaling Challenge

        Scaling search isn't just about fetching more documents. It's about knowing how far to push the system before performance breaks. 

        At Uber Eats, the first attempt to increase selection by doubling the number of matched candidates from 200 to 400 seemed like a low-risk change. In practice, it triggered a 4X spike in P50 query latency and exposed deeper architectural flaws.

        The idea was straightforward: expand the candidate pool so that downstream rankers have more choices. More stores mean better recall. However, the cost wasn’t linear because of the following reasons:

        • Search radius grows quadratically: Extending delivery range from 5 km to 10 km doesn’t double the document count—it increases the search area by a factor of four. Every added kilometer pulls in a disproportionately larger set of stores.

        • Retrieval becomes I/O-bound: The number of documents per request ballooned. Queries that once matched a few thousand entries now had to sift through tens of thousands. The Lucene index, tuned for fast lookups, started choking during iteration.

        Geo-sharding Mismatches

        The geo-sharding strategy, built around delivery zones using hexagons, wasn't prepared for expanded retrieval scopes. 

        As delivery radii increased, queries began touching more distant shards, many of which were optimized for different traffic patterns or data distributions. This led to inconsistent latencies and underutilized shards in low-traffic areas.

        Pipeline Coordination Gaps

        Ingestion and query layers weren’t fully aligned. 

        The ingestion service categorizes stores as “nearby” or “far” based on upstream heuristics. These classifications didn’t carry over cleanly into the retrieval logic. As a result, rankers treated distant and local stores the same, skewing relevance scoring and increasing CPU time.

        Geospatial Indexing with H3 and the Sharding Problem

        Uber Eats search is inherently geospatial. Every query is grounded in a delivery address, and every result must answer a core question: Can this store deliver to this user quickly and reliably? 

        To handle this, the system uses H3, Uber’s open-source hexagonal spatial index, to model the delivery world.

        H3-Based Delivery Mapping

        Each merchant’s delivery area is mapped using H3 hexagons:

        • The world is divided into hexagonal tiles at a chosen resolution.

        • A store declares delivery availability to a specific set of hexes.

        • The index then builds a reverse mapping: for any hex, which stores deliver to it?

        This structure makes location-based lookups efficient. Given a user’s location, the system finds their H3 hexagon and retrieves all matching stores with minimal fanout.

        Where Ingestion Fell Short

        The problem wasn’t the mapping but the metadata.

        Upstream services were responsible for labeling stores as “close” or “far” at ingestion time. This binary categorization was passed downstream without actual delivery time (ETA) information. 

        Once ingested, the ranking layer saw both close and far stores as equivalent. That broke relevance scoring in subtle but important ways.

        Consider this:

        • Hexagon 7 might have two stores marked as “far.”

        • One is 5 minutes away, the other 30.

        • To the search system, they look the same.

        That lack of granularity meant distant but high-converting stores would often outrank nearby ones. Users saw popular chains from across the city instead of the closer, faster options they expected.

        Sharding Techniques

        Sharding determines how the system splits the global index across machines. 

        A good sharding strategy keeps queries fast, data well-balanced, and hotspots under control. A bad one leads to overloaded nodes, inconsistent performance, and painful debugging sessions.

        Uber Eats search uses two primary sharding strategies: Latitude sharding and Hex sharding. Each has trade-offs depending on geography, query patterns, and document distribution.

        Latitude Sharding

        Latitude sharding divides the world into horizontal bands. Each band corresponds to a range of latitudes, and each range maps to a shard. The idea is simple: group nearby regions based on their vertical position on the globe.

        Shard assignment is computed offline using Spark. The process involves two steps:

        • Slice the map into thousands of narrow latitude stripes.

        • Group adjacent stripes into N roughly equal-sized shards, based on document count.

        To avoid boundary misses, buffer zones are added. Any store that falls near the edge of a shard is indexed in both neighboring shards. The buffer width is based on the maximum expected search radius, converted from kilometers into degrees of latitude.

        The benefits of this approach are as follows:

        • Time zone diversification: Shards include cities from different time zones (for example, the US and Europe). This naturally spreads out traffic peaks, since users in different zones don’t search at the same time.

        • Query locality: Many queries resolve within a single shard. That keeps fanout low and speeds up ranking.

        The downsides are as follows: 

        • Shard imbalance: Dense urban areas near the equator (for example, Southeast Asia) pack far more stores per degree of latitude than sparsely populated regions. Some shards grow much larger than others.

        • Slower index builds: Indexing time is gated by the largest shard. Skewed shard sizes lead to uneven performance and increased latency.

        Hex Sharding

        To address the limitations of latitude sharding, Uber Eats also uses Hex sharding, built directly on top of the H3 spatial index. Here’s how it works:

        • The world is tiled using H3 hexagons at a fixed resolution (typically level 2 or 3).

        • Each hex contains a portion of the indexed documents.

        • A bin-packing algorithm groups hexes into N shards with roughly equal document counts.

        Buffer zones are handled similarly, but instead of latitude bands, buffer regions are defined as neighboring hexagons at a lower resolution. Any store near a hex boundary is indexed into multiple shards to avoid cutting off valid results.

        The benefits are as follows:

        • Balanced shards: Bin-packing by document count leads to far more consistent shard sizes, regardless of geography.

        • Better cache locality: Queries scoped to hexes tend to access tightly grouped data. That improves memory access patterns and reduces retrieval cost.

        • Less indexing skew: Because hexes are spatially uniform, indexing overhead stays predictable across regions.

        As a takeaway, latitude sharding works well when shard traffic needs to be spread across time zones, but it breaks down in high-density regions. 

        Hex sharding offers more control, better balance, and aligns naturally with the geospatial nature of delivery. Uber Eats uses both, but hex sharding has become the more scalable default, especially as selection grows and delivery radii expand.

        Index Layout Optimizations

        When search systems slow down, it’s tempting to look at algorithms, infrastructure, or sharding. But often, the bottleneck hides in a quieter place: how the documents are laid out in the index itself.

        At Uber Eats scale, index layout plays a critical role in both latency and system efficiency. The team optimized layouts differently for restaurant (Eats) and grocery verticals based on query patterns, item density, and retrieval behavior.

        Eats Index Layout

        Restaurant queries typically involve users looking for either a known brand or food type within a city. For example, “McDonald’s,” “pizza,” or “Thai near me.” The document layout reflects that intent.

        Documents are sorted as:

        • City

        • Restaurant

        • Items within each restaurant

        This works for the following reasons: 

        • Faster city filtering: Queries scoped to San Francisco don’t need to scan through documents for Tokyo or Boston. The search pointer skips irrelevant sections entirely.

        • Improved compression: Lucene uses delta encoding. Grouping items from the same store, where metadata like delivery fee or promo is often repeated, yields tighter compression.

        • Early termination: Documents are sorted by static rank (for example, popularity or rating). Once the system retrieves enough high-scoring results, it stops scanning further.

        Grocery Index Layout

        Grocery stores behave differently. A single store may list hundreds or thousands of items, and queries often target a specific product ( “chicken,” “milk,” “pasta”) rather than a store.

        Here, the layout is:

        • City

        • Store (sorted by offline conversion rate)

        • Items grouped tightly under each store

        This matters for the following reasons:

        • Per-store budget enforcement: To avoid flooding results from one SKU-heavy store, the system imposes a per-store document budget. Once a store’s quota is met, the index skips to the next.

        • Diverse results: Instead of returning 100 versions of “chicken” from the same retailer, the layout ensures results are spread across stores.

        • Faster skip iteration: The tight grouping allows the system to jump across store boundaries efficiently, without scanning unnecessary items.

        Performance Impact

        The improvements of these indexing strategies were pretty good:

        • Retrieval latency dropped by 60%

        • P95 latency improved by 50%

        • Index size reduced by 20%, thanks to better compression

        ETA-Aware Range Indexing

        Delivery time matters. When users search on Uber Eats, they expect nearby options to show up first, not restaurants 30 minutes away that happen to rank higher for other reasons. But for a long time, the ranking layer couldn’t make that distinction. It knew which stores delivered to a given area but not how long delivery would take.

        This is because the ingestion pipeline didn’t include ETA (Estimated Time of Delivery) information between stores and hexagons. That meant:

        • The system treated all deliverable stores as equal, whether they were 5 minutes or 40 minutes away.

        • Ranking logic had no signal to penalize faraway stores when closer alternatives existed.

        • Popular but distant stores would often dominate results, even if faster options were available.

        This undermined both user expectations and conversion rates. A store that looks promising but takes too long to deliver creates a broken experience.

        The Solution: Range-Based ETA Bucketing

        To fix this, Uber Eats introduced ETA-aware range indexing. Instead of treating delivery zones as flat lists, the system:

        • Binned stores into time-based ranges: Each store was indexed into one or more delivery buckets based on how long it takes to reach a given hex. For example:

          • Range 1: 0 to 10 minutes

          • Range 2: 10 to 20 minutes

          • Range 3: 20 to 30 minutes

        • Duplicated entries across ranges: A store that’s 12 minutes from one hex and 28 minutes from another would appear in both Range 2 and Range 3. This added some storage overhead, but improved retrieval precision.

        • Ran range-specific queries in parallel: When a user queried from a given location, the system launched multiple subqueries—one for each ETA bucket. Each subquery targeted its corresponding shard slice.

        This approach works for the following reasons:

        • Recall improves: The system surfaces more candidates overall, across a wider range of delivery times without overloading a single query path.

        • Latency drops: By splitting the query into parallel, bounded range scans, each shard does less work, and total response time shrinks.

        • Relevance becomes proximity-aware: Rankers now see not just what a store offers, but how fast it can deliver, enabling better tradeoffs between popularity and speed.

        Conclusion

        Scaling Uber Eats search to support nX merchant growth wasn’t a single optimization. It was a system-wide redesign.

        Latency issues, ranking mismatches, and capacity bottlenecks surfaced not because one layer failed, but because assumptions across indexing, sharding, and retrieval stopped holding under pressure.

        This effort highlighted a few enduring lessons that apply to any high-scale search or recommendation system:

        • Documents must be organized around how queries behave. Misaligned layouts waste I/O, increase iteration cost, and cripple early termination logic.

        • A good sharding strategy accounts for document distribution, query density, and even time zone behavior to spread traffic and avoid synchronized load spikes.

        • When profiling shows document iteration taking milliseconds instead of microseconds, the problem isn’t ranking but traversal. Optimizing storage access patterns often yields bigger wins than tuning ranking models.

        • Storing the same store in multiple ETA buckets increases index size, but dramatically reduces compute at query time. Every gain in recall, speed, or freshness has to be weighed against storage, complexity, and ingestion cost.

        • Breaking queries into ETA-based subranges, separating fuzzy matches from exact ones, or running proximity buckets in parallel all help maintain latency while expanding recall.

        • In a system touched by dozens of teams and services, observability is a prerequisite. Latency regressions, ingestion mismatches, and ranking anomalies can't be fixed without precise telemetry and traceability.

        References:


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