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Wealth requires health

The Shortlist

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OUR BEST IDEAS FOR THE C-SUITE

Curated by Alex Panas, global leader of industries, & Axel Karlsson, global leader of functional practices and growth platforms

Welcome to the CEO Shortlist, a biweekly newsletter of our best ideas for the C-suite. This week, we examine what health means for CEOs and their employees. You can reach us with thoughts, ideas, and health tips at Alex_Panas@McKinsey.com and Axel_Karlsson@McKinsey.com. Thank you, as ever.

—Alex and Axel

An image linking to the web page “The surprising state of employee health” on McKinsey.com.

Healthy leaders. Most CEOs got to where they are through a focused approach to hard work. But our latest research shows that personal health is more important than long hours. We asked more than 100 leaders of companies around the world about the daily routines that keep them effective in their roles. Six categories of mindsets and practices emerged. Staying healthy on these six dimensions is a prerequisite for high performance.

Healthy employees. Employee health means much more than physical safety in the workplace, says Lucy Pérez, McKinsey senior partner and global leader of the McKinsey Health Institute. Holistic health means mental, social, and emotional well-being. And, as with all kinds of health, prevention is key. Learn how to advocate for your employees—and yourself—in our latest article.

We hope you find these ideas novel and insightful. See you in a couple weeks with more McKinsey ideas for the CEO and others in the C-suite.

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by "McKinsey CEO Shortlist" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 04:44 - 4 Apr 2025

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING: ROBUST PROCESS DEVELOPMENT & SCIENTIFIC MOLDING (23 & 24 April 2025)

CLICK HERE TO DOWNLOAD BROCHURE

Please call 012-588 2728

email to pearl-otc@outlook.com

HYBRID PUBLIC PROGRAM

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING:

ROBUST PROCESS DEVELOPMENT & SCIENTIFIC MOLDING

(** Choose either Zoom OR Physical Session)

Remote Online Training (Via Zoom) &

Wyndham Grand Bangsar Kuala Lumpur Hotel (Physical)

(SBL Khas / HRD Corp Claimable Course)

Date : 23 Apr 2025 (Wed) | 9am – 5pm By Selvaraj

24 Apr 2025 (Thu) | 9am – 5pm . .

INTRODUCTION:

Scientific Injection Molding is typically used in the production of complex parts and components where small variations in molding variables can severely impact the process or finished product. Therefore, the goal of Scientific Injection Molding is twofold:

1. Develop a process that produces repeatable results with minimal variation.

2. Optimize dimensional or mechanical characteristics of a molded part.

When developing a molding process using Scientific Injection Molding, key inputs such as time (fill, pack/hold, etc.), temperature (melt, barrel, etc.), and pressure (hydraulic, injection melt, cavity, etc.) are meticulously monitored, adjusted, and controlled, to ensure that process robustness is achieved, and a good part is consistently produced. A process can be robust or on the other hand must be changed frequently. A robust process ensures repeatability and a wide processing window for better quality & cost.

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

1. Material properties that affect processing

2. The importance of drying

3. Explains specific rules for controlling the plastic during processing

4. Injection molding machine selection

5. Provides thorough overview of injection molding and troubleshooting techniques.

6. Exercise greater control over the molding process

7. Reduce rejects and scrap

8. Improve part quality

9. Increase productivity

10. Robust parameter optimization

INTENDED AUDIENCE:

This workshop has been designed for all Managers, Section Heads, Engineers and Senior Technicians who are involved in the process of Plastic Injection Molding and want to make their workplace more productive & optimized. Following groups of people will benefit from this training:

1. Tool makers

2. Manufacturing engineers

3. Production engineers

4. Any technical personnel involved with plastic injection moulded parts

METHODOLOGY:

1. Participants will inform the organizer their top 6 issues to be discussed during the Troubleshooting section.

2. Interactive and action based with personal examples.

3. Participants are strongly encouraged to prepare their statistical software of choice for DOE simulation.

PREREQUISITE:

Participants are expected to have a basic understanding in Plastic Injection Moulding with a minimum of 2 years’ experience.

OUTLINE OF WORKSHOP

DAY 1 (9.00am—5.00pm)

1. Handling Semi Crystalline & Amorphous Polymers

i. Shrinkage

ii. Mel temperature

iii. Mold filling speed

iv. Mold temperatures

v. Barrel Heat Profile

vi. Screw recovery speeds

vii. Nozzle temperature

viii. Cooling times

ix. Mechanical properties

x. Optical clarity

2. Plastic drying

i. Degradation

ii. Drying time

iii. Drying temperature

iv. Types of dryers

v. Moisture measurement

vi. Overdrying effect

3. Injection moulding machine selection

i. Clamp force

ii. Machine platen size

iii. Shot size

iv. Screw diameter

v. Compression ratio

vi. Types of screws

vii. Check ring importance

DAY 2 (9.00am—5.00pm)

4. Process optimization

i. Optimization of injection phase

ii. Cavity balance

iii. Pressure drop

iv. Process window

v. Gate seal time

vi. Cooling time

vii. Screw speed & back pressure

5. Mold qualification flowchart

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iii. Mold temperature maps

iv. Setup instructions

6. Mould cooling, venting & regrind management

i. Mould cooling

ii. Mould venting

iii. Regrind

7. DOE to develop robust injection molding parameters

8. Troubleshooting common issues at customer location

i. Short molding – consistent and inconsistent

ii. Flash

** Certificate of attendance will be awarded for those who completed the course

ABOUT THE FACILITATOR

Selvaraj is a highly qualified technical trainer in the areas of Continuous Improvement and Quality Excellence. He believes in interactive and fun filled training. His method of training is sharing rather than lecturing. With 23 years of experience in the field of Manufacturing Improvement & Quality Excellence covering areas of Design, Material Selection, Tooling, Machine & Process Engineering, Production and Supply Chain Management, Selvaraj B uses lots of real life examples. Selvaraj B started his career in 1989 as a Mechanical Engineer and in 23 years, has worked in 3 MNC companies that are World Class, i.e. Matsushita (Japanese), Robert Bosch (German) and Entegris (American) up to the level of an Operations Manager. Selvaraj B is a certified HRDF trainer. His strength is combining the intricacies and details of technical training with highly humorous anecdotes for maximum training effectiveness.

AMONG HIS NOTABLE ACHIEVEMENTS ARE:

1. Leading Gold Medal winning teams to NPC conventions – 1995 - 2002

2. Certified MTM and Ergonomics practitioner - 1997

3. Tooling & plastic parts design standardization - 2000

4. Awarded best Six Sigma Champion award in 2006 for promoting successful Sigma projects – 2006

5. Certified Trainer with Napoleon Hill International - 2007

6. Certified Lean Sigma Champion - 2010

7. Competent Communicator & Humorous Speech Division N Champion in Toastmasters International – 2012

8. Certified Six Sigma Master Black Belt - 2016

9. Member of the Society of Plastics Engineers

10. Member of the Institute of Engineers Malaysia

11. Certified NLP Practitioner - 2016

12. Certified VDI Quality Systems auditor - 1997

13. Certified Industry 4.0 Professional accredited by the US-based

International Institute of Executive Careers™ (IIEC)

AMONG HIS NOTABLE IMPROVEMENTS PROJECTS ARE:

1. Consolidating the Plastic Injection Moulding sections into 1 department & leading it – Bosch Bayan Lepas

2. Motivating and guiding numerous scrap reduction & quality improvement teams – Bosch Bayan Lepas, Automotive Lighting Bayan Lepas

3. Reduction of manufacturing lead time from 28 days to 3 days – Entegris

4. Cycle time reduction projects – Bosch, Entegris

5. Lean improvement projects – Signature Kitchen Sdn. Bhd. KL, Anshin Precision Sdn. Bhd. Shah Alam, Silverstone Berhad Taiping.

6. Starting a new factory of 200 headcount for Silicone Wafer Process Carrier comprising of Manufacturing, Maintenance, Engineering, Tooling, Production Planning & Continuous Improvement Department – Entegris Kulim Hi-Tech.

7. Guiding and inspiring numerous quality improvement and cost reduction teams to State level and National level competition and recognition.

8. Setting up & developing a World Class Manufacturing team for clean room fittings manufacturing – Entegris Kulim Hi-Tech

(HRD Corp/SBL Khas Claimable)

training Fee

14 hours Remote Online Training (Via Zoom)

RM 1,296.00/pax (excluded 8% SST)

2 days Face-to-Face Training (Physical Training at Hotel)

RM 2,250.00/pax (excluded 8% SST)

Group Registration: Register 3 participants from the same organization, the 4th participant is FREE.
(Buy 3 Get 1 Free) if Register before 11 April 2025. Please act fast to grab your favorite training program!

We hope you find it informative and interesting and we look forward to seeing you soon.

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by "sump@otcmsb.com.my" <sump@otcmsb.com.my> - 02:21 - 4 Apr 2025

Economic mobility in rural America: A first look at new research

On McKinsey Perspectives

DELIVERING ACTIONABLE INSIGHTS ON THE DAY’S NEWS

Brought to you by Alex Panas, global leader of industries, & Axel Karlsson, global leader of functional practices and growth platforms

Welcome to the latest edition of Only McKinsey Perspectives. We hope you find our insights useful. Let us know what you think at Alex_Panas@McKinsey.com and Axel_Karlsson@McKinsey.com.

—Alex and Axel

Rural America, revisited

In the news

•

More than farms. Rural America is essential to the nation’s identity and, according to a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution, offers a greater share of energy, food, and recreation opportunities than some Americans might think. Yet multiple surveys suggest that residents of rural communities often feel left out of key policy decisions that affect them. To ensure that rural areas can thrive, lawmakers should consider clearly defining the term “rural” so that all rural communities may benefit from national programs, as well as understanding these areas’ geographic, economic, and racial diversity. [Brookings Institution]

•

Small towns, better mobility. Lower-income kids living in large US cities have a harder time moving up the economic ladder than kids from smaller towns, a new study shows. As Bloomberg reports, the researchers found that as cities grew, resources shifted to the wealthy—which widened the income gap—while smaller counties were able to make public benefits more accessible to underprivileged kids. With limited options for schools and socializing in smaller towns, these communities can be more economically diverse and more likely to see their kids meeting peers from varied backgrounds. [Bloomberg]

In 2023, an estimated 46.3 million Americans resided in rural counties.

On McKinsey.com

•

Economic growth engine. That rural America is facing an inevitable decline is more myth than reality. In fact, the areas outside of urban centers are growing, and rural American communities are important contributors to the broader US economy, McKinsey Senior Partner Shelley Stewart III and coauthors explain. McKinsey Institute for Economic Mobility analysis found that from 2010 to 2022, the GDP in rural counties increased 15% and median household income rose 43% to reach nearly $60,000 a year—a historic record.

•

(Re)defining rural America. A clearer understanding of rural America, and who lives there, could create more opportunities for its residents and bring greater benefits to the country as a whole. The authors’ analysis reveals that rural America is America: Rural communities are a part of every US state and territory, and these communities make up approximately 71% of the country’s land. In addition, rural neighborhoods are becoming more diverse, with growing populations of Hispanic and other racial groups. See a snapshot of rural America in eight exhibits.

Get to know rural America

—Edited by Belinda Yu, editor, Atlanta

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by "Only McKinsey Perspectives" <publishing@email.mckinsey.com> - 11:05 - 3 Apr 2025

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by "Russell | ClickFunnels" <noreply@clickfunnelsnotifications.com> - 01:13 - 3 Apr 2025

The Art of REST API Design: Idempotency, Pagination, and Security

͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏

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The Art of REST API Design: Idempotency, Pagination, and Security

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APIs are the front doors to most systems.

They expose functionality, enable integrations, and define how teams, services, and users interact. But while it’s easy to get an API working, it’s much harder to design one that survives change, handles failure gracefully, and remains a joy to work with six months later.

Poorly designed APIs don’t just annoy consumers. They slow teams down, leak data, cause outages, and break integrations. One inconsistent response structure can turn into dozens of custom client parsers. One missing idempotency check can result in duplicate charges. One weak authorization path can cause a security breach.

Well-designed APIs, on the other hand, create leverage and help the team do more. Some defining features are as follows:

They act as contracts, not just access points.
They scale with usage.
They reduce surprises for the developers and other stakeholders.
And they are reliable, internally and externally.

Most of the pain in API systems doesn’t come from the initial development. It comes from evolving them: adding new fields without breaking old clients, handling retries without state duplication, and syncing data between systems without losing events.

A good API design is defensive and anticipates growth, chances of misuse, and failures. It understands that integration points are long-lived and every decision has an impact down the line.

In this article, we explore the core principles and techniques of good API Design that make APIs dependable, usable, and secure. While our focus will primarily be on REST APIs, we will also explore some concepts related to gRPC APIs to have a slightly more holistic view.

Principles of Good API Design...

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How did Rolls-Royce’s CEO lead an astonishing transformation?

On McKinsey Perspectives

DELIVERING ACTIONABLE INSIGHTS ON THE DAY’S NEWS

Brought to you by Alex Panas, global leader of industries, & Axel Karlsson, global leader of functional practices and growth platforms

Welcome to the latest edition of Only McKinsey Perspectives. We hope you find our insights useful. Let us know what you think at Alex_Panas@McKinsey.com and Axel_Karlsson@McKinsey.com.

—Alex and Axel

Revitalizing Rolls-Royce

In the news

•

A CEO’s homework. Rolls-Royce CEO Tufan Erginbilgiç has made a name for himself by overseeing a stunning turnaround at the company, Financial Times reports. Since Erginbilgiç stepped into the role in early 2023, Rolls-Royce’s stock price has surged eightfold, and the business is set to achieve its operating-profit and free-cash-flow goals ahead of schedule. By touring sites, engaging with shareholders, and benchmarking the company against its rivals before starting the top job, Erginbilgiç ensured that he could be effective from day one. [FT]

•

Shrewd moves. In the past two years, Rolls-Royce’s CEO has—among many measures taken to reverse the company’s fortunes—enforced zero-based budgeting, clearly defined roles and responsibilities, and made hard calls about which sustainability efforts to pursue. But as Bloomberg reports, Erginbilgiç isn’t done yet. He aims for a company that’s “actually competitive, resilient, growing, and high performing.” In spite of the CEO’s achievements, Rolls-Royce has been dogged by supply-chain-related challenges since the COVID-19 pandemic. [Bloomberg]

“If you aren’t in uncharted territory, you aren’t transforming the business.”

On McKinsey.com

•

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More-capable agents. If you’ve ever chatted with a customer service bot, you’ve probably experienced a basic version of an AI agent: a software component that can perform tasks on behalf of users and systems. Recent gen AI models have enabled a range of new possibilities that allow agent systems to plan, collaborate, complete tasks, and even learn to improve their own performance. As McKinsey Senior Partner Lari Hämäläinen explains, “Today, the joint human-plus-machine outcome can generate great quality and great productivity.”

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How AMEX Processes Millions of Daily Transactions With Millisecond Latency

͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏ ͏

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How AMEX Processes Millions of Daily Transactions With Millisecond Latency

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Disclaimer: The details in this post have been derived from the presentation by the American Express engineering team on the Monster Scale Summit by ScyllaDB. All credit for the technical details goes to the American Express engineering team. Special thanks to ScyllaDB for organizing the event. The links to the original articles are present in the references section at the end of the post. We’ve attempted to analyze the details and provide our input about them. If you find any inaccuracies or omissions, please leave a comment, and we will do our best to fix them.

American Express processes trillions of dollars worth of transactions every year, which means millions of daily transactions worldwide.

Considering how impatient users can become if a transaction takes too long, these transactions must support low-latency responses in milliseconds. To support this requirement, American Express rebuilt its payment system in 2018 to create a more modern, flexible, and reliable infrastructure.

But what was the problem with the old system?

The older system was a traditional on-premise payment network that relied on legacy infrastructure. It had several limitations that made it less suitable for the future. Also, it was difficult to change and scale based on demand. AMEX wanted to ensure that its payment network could handle increasing transaction volumes while maintaining high speed and security.

The key reasons for the move are as follows:

Cloud Readiness: The previous system was not fully designed for cloud environments. American Express aimed to build a system that could take advantage of cloud computing for better scalability and resilience.
Flexibility and Adaptability: The financial industry evolves rapidly, with new payment technologies and regulations emerging frequently. A redesigned system would allow for quicker updates and integrations with partners.
Security and Reliability: As a major payment provider, American Express needed a network that could process millions of transactions securely and without failure. The updated system was designed to be more resilient against disruptions.
Low Latency Processing: Payments must be processed in milliseconds. The older system faced challenges in meeting modern performance expectations. By upgrading the network, American Express ensured faster transaction approvals and smoother customer experiences.
Handling More Transactions – The volume of digital payments continues to grow. The new system was built to handle a significantly larger number of transactions per second, reducing the risk of slowdowns or failures.

In this article, we’ll look at the architectural and design decisions AMEX engineers made when building the new payment system.

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Global Transaction Router

The centerpiece of the new payment system is the Global Transaction Router (GTR). The AMEX payment system has to interact with different entities involved in handling payment transactions.

Acquirers (Merchant Banks): These are financial institutions or banks that process card transactions on behalf of a merchant. When a customer uses their AMEX card at a store or online, the acquirer is responsible for sending the transaction request to a payment network like AMEX.
Processors (Payment Service Providers): These are companies that manage the technical infrastructure required to handle payment transactions between merchants, acquiring banks, and card networks. Processors ensure that the payment data is securely transmitted and correctly formatted for authorization.
Issuers (Card-Issuing Banks): An issuer is a bank or financial institution that provides the payment card to the customer. The issuer is responsible for verifying whether the cardholder has sufficient funds of credit available to approve the transaction.

The GTR sits at the edge of the AMEX network, meaning it is the first system that interacts with these different entities. Here’s how the various entities work with the GTR:

A merchant (through an acquirer) submits a payment request when a customer uses their AMEX card.
The request reaches GTR, which determines the best route to process the transaction.
GTR forwards the request to the processor, which verifies transaction details and forwards it to the issuer.
The issuer checks if the cardholder has sufficient funds or credit and sends an approve/decline response back through GTR.
The merchant receives the final approval, and the payment is completed.
Settlement occurs later when the issuer transfers funds to the acquirer, who then pays the merchant.

Unique Challenges for the GTR

There were several unique challenges when it came to building the GTR:

Managing Long-Lived TCP Sessions: Unlike modern web services that use short-lived HTTP-based APIs, payment systems often rely on ISO 8583, an older financial messaging standard that operates over long-lived TCP connections. This meant that persistent connections must be maintained for extended periods.
Handling ISO 8583 Messages: ISO 8583 is a widely used but outdated messaging protocol in financial transactions.
Traffic Spikes and Load Surges: Financial transactions do not occur at a constant rate. The system had to handle sudden spikes such as during Black Friday and holiday shopping seasons.
Ensuring Ultra-Low Latency: Payment systems operate on a millisecond scale. Even a small delay in processing a transaction can result in declined payments due to timeouts and bad customer experience if a transaction takes too long to complete.

Design Decisions of the GTR

The AMEX engineering team made several technical decisions when designing the GTR to ensure it overcame the challenges. Some of the major decisions are as follows:

1 - Language Choice: Go (Golang)

The team selected Go (Golang) as the primary language for developing GTR.

But why Go?

One of the major reasons was Go’s concurrency model. Payment transactions involve thousands of concurrent connections, each requiring processing in real time. Go provides goroutines that can handle thousands of open connections efficiently without excessive CPU or memory overhead.

Second, Go compiles ahead of time (AOT), meaning applications start instantly without the need for runtime optimizations. This is important for low-latency transaction processing.

Go’s garbage collector is also optimized for low-latency applications, ensuring that memory cleanup does not interrupt transactional processing. Compared to languages like Java, where garbage collection can cause random pauses (GC spikes), Go’s GC is designed to minimize transaction delays.

2 - gRPC over HTTP/2

AMEX opted for gRPC over HTTP/2 to improve internal communication within the payment system.

gRPC uses Protocol Buffers (protobuf) instead of JSON, which results in smaller message sizes and faster serialization and deserialization. When routing payments, GTR converts ISO 8583 messages into gRPC messages using protobuf, making internal processing faster.

Moreover, gRPC over HTTP/2 allows multiplexing, meaning multiple requests can be sent and processed simultaneously on a single TCP connection. This is critical for handling thousands of real-time transactions without delays.

See the diagram below that shows HTTP/2 multiplexing in action.

3 - Asynchronous Logging for Performance Optimization

In traditional systems, logging is synchronous, meaning every time the application writes a log message, it pauses execution until the log is written to a file or database. This slows down transaction processing, especially when dealing with millions of log entries per second.

GTR uses asynchronous logging. Log messages are written to an in-memory buffer instead of being processed immediately. A separate goroutine reads from the buffer and writes logs in batches, reducing contention. This way transactions continue processing while logs are written in the background.

See the diagram below:

Also, AMEX built custom logging handlers using Go’s standard “slog” library. The library helps buffer logs in memory and structure them for easy debugging. AMEX also optimized logging by using log sampling, where only a subset of logs is recorded under heavy load conditions.

Optimization Strategies

To ensure that the Global Transaction Router could handle millions of transactions per second while maintaining low latency and high reliability, the American Express (AMEX) engineering team implemented several key optimization strategies.

Let’s look at the three major areas of optimization.

1 - Profiling and Benchmarking

Profiling is the process of analyzing a program while it is running to identify performance bottlenecks (for example, slow functions, high CPU usage, or memory inefficiencies).

On the other hand, benchmarking involves running a set of tests to measure how well the system performs under different conditions, such as high transaction volumes.

The team used Go’s built-in profiling tools (pprof) to analyze the system’s performance. They measured CPU usage, memory consumption, and execution time for different functions in the codebase. This helped them identify which functions were taking too long to execute and needed optimization.

Next, the team ran benchmark tests by simulating high-traffic scenarios to test how GTR performs under stress. They ran tests to measure parameters such as latency, throughput, and failure recovery.

2 - Using Reader-Writer Mutexes

A mutex (mutual exclusion lock) is a mechanism used to control access to shared resources in a concurrent system. If multiple Go routines (threads) try to read and write the same data at the same time, data corruption can occur. A mutex prevents this by allowing only one thread to access the resource at a time.

Instead of using a standard mutex, the AMEX team implemented a Reader-Writer Mutex. This is because a standard mutex locks a resource completely, meaning no other thread can access it until the lock is released. Such an approach is inefficient when multiple threads only need to read the data and creates unnecessary delays by blocking all access.

The Reader-Writer Mutex works differently. It allows multiple read operations to happen at the same time. Write operations still require exclusive access.

See the diagram below that shows the difference between a standard mutex and reader-writer mutex.

3 - Avoiding Excessive Use of Go Channels

Go channels are a way for Go routines to communicate with each other by passing data between them. They are often used to coordinate asynchronous tasks.

Initially, AMEX used Go channels to process transaction data, but they found that this approach was slower than direct socket communication.

Channels introduce extra overhead because:

Messages need to be queued and synchronized before they are processed.
Each transaction had to wait for a channel to be read before moving forward.
This added unnecessary complexity in high-speed financial transactions.

Instead of reading from a TCP socket, sending data through a Go channel, and then writing to a gRPC socket, the team removed the intermediate channel step. Transactions were processed directly from TCP to gRPC, eliminating unnecessary delays.

See the diagram below:

Operational Best Practices

Lastly, the AMEX engineering team also follows some operational best practices to ensure that the Global Transaction Router works efficiently under all conditions.

1 - Continuous Performance Testing For Every Release

Even a small change in the codebase could affect performance, scalability, or transaction speed. A minor update that seems harmless could introduce unexpected bottlenecks in high-traffic scenarios.

Therefore, every release undergoes performance testing, regardless of how small the update is. Benchmark tests are run to measure transaction processing speed, response time, and system resource usage. Load testing tools simulate real-world transaction volumes to ensure the system can handle peak loads.

2 - Chaos Testing

Payment networks must remain operational 24/7, even during sudden traffic surges, network outages, or system crashes.

To ensure this, AMEX performs regular chaos testing.

Chaos testing involves intentionally introducing failures or extreme conditions to observe how the system responds. It helps ensure that GTR can recover quickly from unexpected issues without service disruption.

3 - Iterative Development Process

Instead of making large, infrequent updates, the AMEX team continuously improves GTR through small, incremental enhancements.

Developers analyze profiling data to find areas where performance can be improved. Instead of deploying large, risky changes, small updates are made frequently.

This approach ensures that performance, security, and scalability are always improving.

Conclusion

The development of the Global Transaction Router at American Express showcases how a well-architected payment system can achieve high scalability, low latency, and fault tolerance.

By making strategic technical decisions such as using Go for concurrency, gRPC for efficient communication, and asynchronous logging to reduce bottlenecks, the engineering team ensured that GTR could handle millions of transactions per second without performance degradation.

Optimization strategies like profiling and benchmarking, reader-writer mutexes, and direct socket writes further improved transaction processing speed. This has enabled American Express to build a cutting-edge financial transaction system capable of meeting the ever-growing demands of the digital economy.

References:

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Unique Challenges for the GTR

Design Decisions of the GTR

1 - Language Choice: Go (Golang)

2 - gRPC over HTTP/2

3 - Asynchronous Logging for Performance Optimization

Optimization Strategies

1 - Profiling and Benchmarking

2 - Using Reader-Writer Mutexes

3 - Avoiding Excessive Use of Go Channels

Operational Best Practices

1 - Continuous Performance Testing For Every Release

2 - Chaos Testing

3 - Iterative Development Process

Conclusion

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